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Models of accumulation show that capital goods have equal productivity and using them goods having similar quality can be produced. However, productivity increases together with technological change and the quality of goods gets higher. Capital accumulation influences technological change and technological change creates terms of new accumulation. Capital and the degree of its utilization have direct influence on technological capabilities of economy creating terms of faster economic development. The role of capital in different periods and economic approach evaluated but it was always a key factor of economic growth. Changes in the structure and character of capital directly decide about the efficiency of technological change reflected in the rate of profits and the level of savings, which influences the level of capital accumulation. High-level accumulation economies can pursue growth based on innovation, others have to find sources of capital gain. It is difficult because in a lot of countries a huge part of capital is wasted by inflation and public debt limiting sectors producing tangible goods. The use of innovation processes needs more widely capital resources. It may be accomplished through the reduction of constraints and the costs of raising and holding capital.
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It has been 10 years of Polish membership in the European Union, and the acquisition of Polish agriculture rules of the Common Agricultural Policy. Such an anniversary induces us to reflect on the changes taking place in agriculture. The aim of the study was to: a) show the amount of funds paid to farmers under the Common Agricultural Policy and the sources of their origin, b) the presentation of changes in agriculture in terms of: inputs, crop area and production of major crops in total and per capita, livestock farming and the production of major animal products in total and per capita, productivity (land, labor and fixed assets), marketability and profitability (land and labor), self-sufficiency in the production and consumption: basic cereals, potatoes, cow’s milk, hen eggs, and meat and offal. As the base period for comparison one adopted the years 2001-2003, i.e. three years before the Polish accession to the European Union, and the last period is 2011-2013, due to the availability of validated statistical data. In agriculture, there are variations in the cultivation of various crops, animal husbandry and productivity of plants and animals caused by natural factors and economic considerations. There are also variations in the prices of means of production and the production itself. The adoption of three-year periods allows for the elimination of annual fluctuations and provides a more comparable performance. Poland moving to a market economy in the nineties of the twentieth century did prepare its whole economy to join the EU, especially in rural areas and agriculture. With the adoption of the EU there were Polish institutions and legal solutions allowing for the adoption of appropriate management and financial support directed to the country and to agriculture. This support contributed to the need to increase investment in agriculture also from national resources (co-financing). Finally, funding for agricultural production increased from less than 9% in the pre-accession period to 60% in 2009-2010. Appropriations for direct payments and complementary targeted at farmers account for about 61% of all funds directed to rural areas by the EU. In addition, Poland obtained without tariff barriers an access to the EU market, resulting in increasingly higher volumes of products and an increase in trade surplus. Obtained funding for farmers, the organization of the agricultural market and legal infrastructure stimulate multiple transformations in Polish agriculture, and the main ones are: –– Changes in the factors of production; reduction of arable land resources and the increase in capital assets and the change of their structure (reducing the share of buildings and structures and increase the share of machinery, equipment and means of transport). Labor resources have a high degree of stability to the amount due to the low possibility of their use in non-agricultural activities, while changes to the structure of these resources: increase the par
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The article constitutes a normative overview of housing rental practices in the Polish People’s Republic, including solutions implemented at the dawn of the Polish Third Republic, due to their strong ties to the previous regulations. The aim of the article is to attempt a comprehensive study of the legislative status with regard to housing rental practices in the Polish People’s Republic, focusing on the character of the implemented regulation as well as its evolution. The author has analysed instances of state (administrative) control over the distribution and use of residential premises, from the decree of 1944 on housing committees, through housing rental practices in the light of public housing management (taking into consideration the Housing Law of 1959), to the special lease scheme based on the Housing Law of 1974. The latter legislative act has ultimately become the sign of qualitative changes consisting in the abandonment of the administrative legal regulation and return to the civil legal model, which was implemented only after the foundation of the Polish Third Republic.
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The peculiarity of military criminal proceedings consisted in their approach and regulation concerning formal defense. This approach had been equally peculiar, since in the inter-war period, it was possible to notice a certain level of distrust towards defense lawyers from outside the military circles, and preference for military personnel or lawyers who used to serve in the military. Such approach was also based upon substantive reasons, since criminal cases presented in courts-martial involved not only a degree of professionalism required of all lawyers, but also an understanding of the military structure and relationships. The defense lawyer’s ability to understand those matters benefitted not only the defendant, but also the military judicial service. This, in turn, had constituted the foundation for the emergence of a small group of lawyers and officers of the judicial service—separate from the defense lawyers appearing before the common courts—who would participate in military court proceedings. This function was performed by some of the most eminent defense lawyers of the inter-war period. For the military judiciary, the function of the military defense lawyer constituted a convenient form of practice for the future military judges and prosecutors, which manifested itself in the practice of assigning assistants and legal interns the role of court-appointed attorneys.
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Scholarly literature assumes that European bills of exchange have originated in Italy in the times of the crusades, in order to facilitate trade exchange and money circulation, which was particularly hampered and limited in the Middle Ages. Moreover, the rapid growth of towns and town confederations (the Hanseatic League) had contributed to the increase in popularity of this particular method of loan security. The article focuses on the development of the bill of exchange in the territory of Poland since its emergence in business trading up until the moment in which this method of loan security began to be regulated according to the rules in force in the occupation countries. Contemporary proceedings by writ of payment from the bill of exchange, based upon the abstract nature of the contractual relationship, conducted in a simplified manner, with limited evidence and charges inhabilitas personae, anticipation temporis falsificatio, do not differ significantly, on the fundamental level, from the Polish bill of exchange-based proceedings conducted in the 18th and 19th century.
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In modern criminal proceedings, one of the functions which can be performed by the plaintiff (the victim) is the function of the auxiliary prosecutor. This institution has been known to all 20th-century Polish laws of criminal proceedings (1928, 1969, and 1997). The particular issues regarding the auxiliary prosecutor regulated in those codifications focused primarily on: 1) when and on what conditions the auxiliary prosecutor could join the criminal proceedings; 2) who decided on allowing the auxiliary prosecutor into the proceedings; 3) what was the legal status of the auxiliary prosecutor in the proceedings; 4) what was the auxiliary prosecutor’s relationship to the public prosecutor. The institution of the auxiliary prosecutor, introduced in the Rules of Criminal Procedure of 1928, became a subject of heated criticism. It was then promptly abolished in the amendment to the Rules of 1932. Its abolishment was justified by the claims that it had proved to be ineffectual in practical application. This decision was, however, partly rectified in the amendment by introducing a chapter entitled “The Victim” into the code. The Rules of Criminal Procedure of 1969 re-introduced the institution of the auxiliary prosecutor, but only in the capacity of an accessory auxiliary prosecutor. This change had, however, no real effect on the legal practice as well as the attitudes of the authorities towards the rights of the victim in the court proceedings. It was not until the Rules of Criminal Procedure of 1997 that the auxiliary prosecutor has become a rightful party in litigation, an independent subject—a subject whose participation in the criminal proceedings can contribute to the increase in the contradictoriness of the proceedings, the odds of uncovering material truth as well as citizens’ trust in the judiciary.
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