We kindly inform you that, as long as the subject affiliation of our 300.000+ articles is in progress, you might get unsufficient or no results on your third level or second level search. In this case, please broaden your search criteria.
In Hungary medieval archaeology may have even greater significance than elsewhere. The invasion of the Mongols in 1241 destroyed not only a large part of the settlements, but also many written sources. Even greater upheavals brought the Turkish wars and the one and a half century Turkish occupation in the 16th and 17th centuries. The capital Buda (oven), for example, was taken by the Turks in 1541 and was reconquered in 1686 after several unsuccessful sieges. This not only means that many villages have been devastated, but also that the buildings of most cities come from the Baroque age. The royal archives and most of the city or church archives were destroyed, so that Hungarian historiography could only be based on the written sources preserved in the non-Turks.
More...
During the seventeenth century and at the beginning of the eighteenth century the Hungarian political elite, the Hungarian aristocracy and the Hungarian nobility, faced dramatic political choices and very important alternatives. After the Battle of Mohács in 1526 and after the capture of Buda, the ancient capital of the Hungarian kingdom, in 1541 the territory of Hungary came to be divided into three " temporarily even four " parts. The middle of the medieval Hungarian kingdom, the region around Buda, fell directly under Ottoman direction. The Turkish authorities divided the area subject to their control into vilayets and sanjaks. The northern and western part of historic Hungary, or so-called royal Hungary, became a part of the Habsburg Empire. In the eastern part of the former Hungarian kingdom a new state, which had never existed before came into existence. This was the princedom of Transylvania, which along with the two Roumanian principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia and the republic of Ragussa came to be considered as one of the sultan's Christian vassals.
More...
Józef Jasnowski (1906–2009), the preeminent Polish historian, born in Sieniec (the Wielun district under the Russian rule). He studied history at the university of Warsaw, where he was profoundly influenced by professor Wanda Moszczenska (she was an expert from medieval history). He obtained the solid methodological foundation of medieval history. He wrote his master thesis the activity Faust Socyn in Poland, passed his Master’s degree in 1931, and was appointed an assistant of famous Polish historian professor Oskar Halecki. In 1933 he defended his doctoral thesis Peter of Goniądz the activity and writings. Study of history the religious movement in Poland in the second half of the XVIth century. As he said after years with good humor: “For such long title I ought to be awarded the doctorate”. In 1935 he was granted a scholarship of National Fund of Culture and went abroad. He gathered archival sources in Riga, Koenigsberg, Wien and Budapest produced his postdoctoral thesis: Nicholas Black Radzivill (1515–1565), that was presented in May 1939 to the faculty council in Warsaw University. An outbreak of war in 1939 destroyed his scientific career. Through Romania, where he spent a few months in an internment camp, Hungary and Yugoslavia, he sailed to France, where he came forward as a volunteer in Polish Army in France. After the collapse of France, he was evacuated to Scotland, where he served in the 11th signal company Polish Army. After two years of military serves, he was detached at disposal of the Ministry of Information of the Polish Government in Exile. In the February 1943 Jasnowski was appointed the clerk of Department Secondary Schools in Ministry of Education of the Polish Government. He was responsible for the planning of the primary and secondary level of teaching of Polish school children in Great Britain during the II World War, and the school textbook for history teaching. Simultaneously, on official order of the Polish Government, Jasnowski together with the representatives of Czech, Lusatia, Slovakia planed a new post-war political order. He was a co-editor of the international political magazine „West-Slavonic movement”, kept at ambitious level. After war, Jasnowski did not want to get back to after-Yaltan communist Poland. He decided to continue the scientific career in Great Britain. He was conscious of lack of the Polish libraries, that he was cut off from polish archives, and his financial situation was quite bad. But he believed, that in the future Poland would be free. It was a heroic decision! But he was not alone. He acted like many of the Polish soldiers and the Polish citizens. He again start with the scientific research. In 1948 Jasnowski printed in Oxford an excellent survey of the most important problems of Anglo-Polish relations in the XVIth and the XVIIth century – England and Poland in the XVIth and the XVIIth centuries. He studied the history of Poland in the Central European historical and social context and published his findings in the book: Polska w zasięgu cywilizacji arabskiej (Poland in the range of the Arabian influences). He came back to the registration and conferment procedure for a post doctoral degree. In the 1952 he start with the postdoctoral degree conferral procedures. 1953 the 20 of April the Ministry of Education of the Polish Government on Exile, approved his title of Scientific Doctor. In 1955 professor Jasnowski received an invitation to the participation in the International Congress Historical Sciences in Rome. But the disease deprived him of the possibility of participation in the Congress. His paper Problems of the Frontier with Steppes of the North Black Sea, was presented and was issued in “Antemurale” 1955, vol VII. In 1960 his paper Eastern Europe and Western Travelers during the Period of the Grand Tour was presented too on the International Congress Historical Sciences in Stockholm. Jasnowski three times gave a speech at a congress’ of Polish Culture (1970, 1985, 1995). When he was almost 90 years old, he edited eight volumes Materiały do dziejów polskiego uchodźstwa niepodległościowego 1939–1990 (The source materials to the history of Polish pro-independence exiles 1939–1990 and three volumes Prace III Kongresu Kultury Polskiej na Obczyźnie (The Works of the Third Congress of Polish Culture on Exile). In 1991 he was elected as the regular member of Polish-Scandinavian Researches Institute in Copenhagen. Jasnowski died in Kenley (Surrey) in England on 9th October, 2009.
More...
The conception of Zsigmond Kemény, the father of the Hungarian psychological novel, harmonizes with Ferenc Deák’s standpoint and Kossuth’s thoughts start out from the European and Hungarian realities. They all were very well aware of the fact – which had been obvious to all throughout the Reform Era (1825–1848) – that Hungary independently and without assistance would not be able to bring an embourgoisement to fruition. Kemény and Deák believed in the future of the Habsburg Empire, and tended to cast the nation’s lot with it.
More...
Kossuth, the crowd hero, was the pioneer of an exciting new political discourse that used the Magyar vernacular. In exile, Kossuth presented himself as “the wandering son of a bleeding nation.” Eventually, he retreated into the role of the hermit of Turin. His funeral attracted a crowd of over a million people in 1894.
More...
Do najbardziej niespokojnych okresów w dziejach Wielunia i ziemi wieluńskiej należała druga i trzecia ćwierć XV w. Były to czasy wielkiego kryzysu pań- stwowości czeskiej w XV w., zapoczątkowanego przez rewolucję husycką i pogłębionego przez późniejsze walki między pretendentami do korony czeskiej. Były to również czasy długotrwałych konfliktów pogranicznych, związanych z odzyskaniem przez Polskę części utraconych w XIV w. ziem śląskich. Z racji swojego pogranicznego położenia Wieluń niejednokrotnie bywał wówczas poważnie zagrożony, ale także odgrywał ważną rolę polityczną i militarną jako lokalny ośrodek władzy oraz dobrze ufortyfikowane miasto królewskie wraz z zamkiem.
More...
The campaign launched by Alexander the Great against the Sogdians and the Scythians, living across the Sir-darya river, indicates an important turning-point in the history of Ancient Central Asia. The historical importance of Alexander’s campaign into Central Asia can be seen in the fact that tried to defend the Iranian and the later Greek urbanization of Central Asia against the predatory invasions of the northern nomads by preventive military expeditions, by fortresses and fortification systems. His activity became exemplary for his successors and these defence systems also spread gradually to Europe and Eastern Asia and divided the Ancient and Early Medieval World into a southern, more developed zone and a northern, undeveloped one.
More...
Near the end of the 20th century, Serbia and Montenegro / the Rump Yugoslavia conducted an invasive, aggressive war against the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republic of Croatia¸, committed numerous forms of crimes against humanity and international law, including the genocide against Bosniaks,members of the national, ethnic and religious groups such. In that war, Serbia and Montenegro/the Rump Yugoslavia played a key role, especially its armed forces(YPA/YA/ ―Republika Srpska Army‖/‖Serbian Krajina Army―, special units of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Serbia and other armed units).Starting from the above facts, this article deals with the extremely complex,scientific and social problem.
More...
In July 1995, the Republika Srpska Army committed genocide against the Srebrenica Bosniaks. Approximately 8,000 Bosniaks were killed at a time when Srebrenica had been proclaimed a protected zone.Namely, on 16 April 1993, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 819, which declared that ―all parties and others should consider Srebrenica and its surroundings as the protected zone that must not be under armed attack or any other hostile act‖. The first UNPROFOR soldiers arrived in Srebrenica on 18 April 1993.This was a reaction to the statement by the Serbian authorities of 13 April 1993 to the UNHCR representatives that if the Bosniaks do not surrender and agree to evacuate, they will attack the city within two days.The attack did not occur, but in the period from April 1993 to July 1995, the Republika Srpska Armed Forces’ pretension to occupy that territory, expel and liquidate the Bosniaks became more and more obvious. In the beginning of 1995 the smaller convoys with the stock were reaching the enclave. In March 1995, RadovanKaradžić, the president of the Republika Srpska, issued a directive known as Directive 7 in which he stated that in Srebrenica should be: ―Daily conditions of total uncertainty created, unbearable and unpredictability of further survival and the lives of villagers in daily planning and contemplated combat activities ...‖ The United Nations response is absent.The former UN envoy for Yugoslavia, Yasushi Akashi, repeatedly appealed to the Security Council on the failure safe areas concept, and requested that this be changed, but the Council never responded. The UN's inaction encouraged Karadžić's Serbs in the period from 6th-13th July 1995 to commit genocide. The International Court of Justice in The Hague ruled the genocide in 2007.
More...
The Crown Army, after the Polish-Ottoman war of 1672–1676, was reduced to 12 000 soldiers in 1677. Result of the reorganization was the army divided into the 6 ‘partias’ or parts, and spread out across the Polish-Ottoman boderlands, in order to safeguard the Polish assets herein. Additionally, another special group of Polish army was garrisoned in the Podolian and Ukrainian fortresses. The Crown Army deployment of 1677 showed the political disunity between the King and the Hetmans, Dymitr Wiśniowiecki and Stanisław Jan Jabłonowski, at that time; moreover, it was closely linked to the so called Jan III’s Baltic politics.
More...
The main political symbols of the country are the state emblem, the national flag and the anthem. The text and graphical elements in this symbols consists a rich historical experience, important national worth, the traditions related with the main achievements of the relevant nation and the development of the nation during the centuries-long.
More...
Presented in this article are negotiations that the head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Edward Raczyński had in North America (United States, Canada). These include meetings held between the dates of 15th of February and 13th of March 1942. The main purpose of the visit, apart from organizing all the finer details connected with the arrival of the Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief was to increase the United States interest in European issues (especially Polish matters). Among Raczyński’s other tasks one was to recognize the possibility of the signing of a Polish-American political agreement and another was to raise a favorable loan from the United States.
More...
Wars were and still are an intrinsic element in the history of mankind. They bring glory to the victorious, the bitterness of failure to the defeated, and always destruction and suffering to ordinary people, but at the same time they have had a great impact or even shaped the culture of societies. In many places all over the world, as well as in Poland, relics from wars, battlefields, fortifications and weapons are unique and an extraordinary attraction that might bring in tourists. This type of tourism is known as military heritage tourism. In Łódź and its vicinity there are many military sites that might potentially become an attraction. They are mostly related to the great but forgotten Battle of Łódź that took place during the Great War. However, are they attractive enough to create a tourism product?
More...
Wars were and still are an intrinsic element in the history of mankind. They bring glory to the victorious, the bitterness of failure to the defeated, and always destruction and suffering to ordinary people, but at the same time they have had a great impact or even shaped the culture of societies. In many places all over the world, as well as in Poland, relics from wars, battlefields, fortifications and weapons are unique and an extraordinary attraction that might bring in tourists. This type of tourism is known as military heritage tourism. In Łódź and its vicinity there are many military sites that might potentially become an attraction. They are mostly related to the great but forgotten Battle of Łódź that took place during the Great War. However, are they attractive enough to create a tourism product?
More...
The civil war in Russia lasting from 1917 to 1922 was characterized by unprecedented cruelty in those days. Both parties involved in the conflict – the Bolsheviks and the “Whites” – have engaged in practices in a manner substantially deviated from the standards of war. The standard of this war were executions and civilian pacification carried out by the Red Army, as well as the “Whites”. Terror policies were heightened by various types of contributions and requisitions. They caused famine and mass migration of civilians. This situation was not only typical of the European part of Russia but also in the Ural and Siberia. Along with the many features both military areas had in common, they differed in military operations and the abundance of foreign troops being involved, especially in the East, that is to say Siberia and the Ural, where there were many more. The concurrence of different reasons – the uncertain financial situation, frequently hunger, the threat of reprisal for earlier actions, no home or sometimes love – led to the fact that among the forces fighting in Russia, Russian women sought refuge from hunger, disease and death. They often accepted being humiliated while deciding to live together with the soldiers. “War wives” – as they called such women – often shared the hardships of their keepers – service soldiers. The Czech-Slovak and Polish soldiers – for different reasons – were the most popular.
More...
In the second half of the VI century there has been intensifiedexpansion of Slavs and Avars in the areas of the former Roman Empire, and thusin the regions of the Roman province of Dalmatia. They were unscrupulouslykilling and looting the existing population and destroying their material goods ofevery kind on a mass scale. The expansion of Avars and Slavs marked thebeginning of the destruction and complete suppression of all the achievements ofancient culture and civilization. Both first came to the regions of the Romanprovince of Pannonia, and then, a little later, on the areas of the province ofDalmatia. The Avar conquest of Sirmium, a strategically important town in47Ekspanzija Avara i Slavena na prostore rimske provincije DalmacijePannonia, opened the path to joint Avar-Slavic tribes for their breakthrough intothe areas of Roman province of Dalmatia. During their expansion many cities onthe territory of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina, on the present-day Croatiancoastal area and in part of present-day western Serbia, have been destroyed. Withconquering of Salona, the capital of the province of Dalmatia, Avars and Slavshave achieved their ultimate goal.
More...
During the World War I several rescue missions were carried out for the sake of children in the poor areas of the south-eastern part of the Austro-Hungarian territory, e. g., Bosnia-Herzegovina, Dalmatia, and Istria. In Bosnia-Herzegovina, whose borders had been the theatre of military operation against Serbia and Montenegro at the beginning of the war, this humanitarian action was led in accordance between the land governments of Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina, approved by army officials and organized by humanitarian associations from Zagreb established in the pre-war years that were involved in child care and protection, as well as by the Central Committee for the Defence of Families in the Wars and of soldiers who died in combat. The authorities did not have any influence on the choice of the displaced children, some of whom had lost their fathers on the battlefileds, or even both parents due to diseases or starvation. As they were Orthodox, Muslim, and Catholic, the representatives of all three confessional communities were requested to agree about children transports and their displacements in different places of municipal districts and counties in Slavonia region. In this paper special attention is paid to the Muslim children who were situated in the boarding-school in Vinkovci. According to the documents collected by Eugen Sladović, who was the under secretary of Bosnian-Herzegovinian Governement at that time and officially authorized by its decree to control children’s transports and schooling, one can reconstruct most of childhood education, their religious upbringing and living conditions. Sladović’s papers show who participated in child care of Muslims, either from the Croatian or Bosnian-Herzegovinian side. In the end, the authors bring three lists with the personal names of Muslims children, including also the names of deceased among them and returnees to their homeland.
More...
This paper discusses, among other things, the preparation and execution of the Sarajevo assassination and reflections of the act itself on the situation in the wider Tuzla region in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as a brief overview of the press of that time reacting to the very act of assassination of the crown prince Franz Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo on 28 of June 1914. Namely, since 1911, the danger of war appeared every year, so that no international crisis could end, without starting another. In this difficult situation any new conflict could have provoked a world war. The political crises of 1911, 1912, and 1913 did not provoke a war, but every time the peace was about to end. After the Balkan wars, the court and military circles of Austria-Hungary considered it necessary to take a preventive war against Serbia that would “erase it as a political factor”. AustriaHungary sought to remove Serbia as a political factor in the Balkans, thus creating itself a dominant position and emerging to Thessaloniki, which would open wide access to the eastern sea. As a direct cause for war, they were given a Sarajevo assassination. The assassination was carried out by members of the organization “Mlada Bosna”. This organization sought support from nationalist organizations in Serbia, among others, the National Defense, or otherwise the societies through which the members of the Black Hand were active. After all of these events, the Balkans region was again in the focus of European politics in 1914. In this area, which is a bridge between Europe, Asia and Africa, the interests of the great powers of France, Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary were opposed, and all these mutual contradictions culminated in an assassination committed on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo. He reflected on the overall relations in the wider region of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as in the wider Tuzla area, primarily due to the activities of the Secret Organization in Tuzla and their direct links with the perpetrators of the Sarajevo assassination, as well as the proximity of the Serbian border to this area.
More...