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The Armenians living in Galicia formed an ethnic identity which consisted of a few thousand members, distinguished by the liturgical rite, historical tradition and close family and social relationships. The earliest waves of migration arrived at Lwów and Kamieniec Podolski from the Tatar lands, speaking the Kipchak dialect of the Turkic language group. That ethnolect fell into disuse in the 1660s. The more recent migration groups which came to Poland on the turn of the 16th and 17th century, especially those which arrived in the beginning of the 17th century, spoke various dialects of the modern Armenian language. The usage of this language, however, began to fade on the turn of the 18th and 19th century. The Armenian community was dwindling away without further waves of migration. In this situation, the Armenians were undergoing a linguistic Polonisation and, on a lesser scale, Ruthenisation. They quickly assimilated with the Polish community, belonging to the highest social strata such as the intelligentsia and land owners. During the Spring of Nations, the relationship between Polish and Armenian identity was widely discussed. The most frequent opinion held the Armenian people to be a “tribe” of the Polish nation. The 1860s saw a journalistic dispute on the group’s identity. The anonymous author of Głos do ziomków obrządku ormiańskokatolickiego (Call to fellow followers of the Armenian Catholic rite) made a call to abandon the separate rite and unite with the Poles as one nation. Answering this, Izaak Isakowicz (the future Armenian archbishop of Lwów) fervently defended the Armenian rite and traditions. He did not hold the notion that they were a cause of division among the Polish nation, because the Armenians living in Galicia identified with the Polish reason of state and the Armenian culture enriched the Polish culture. In the 1880s, the Armenian land owner Robert Rosco-Bogdanowicz called his fellow Armenians to defy Polonisation, restore the Armenian language, migrate to the Russian Armenia and propagate Western culture, including Catholicism, in that country. Although the Galician Armenians leaned towards assimilation into Polish culture, the disputes on identity led to the rebirth of the Armenian rite and many initiatives to revive the withering ethnicity. A major role in this process was played by Józef Teodorowicz, the last Armenian-Catholic archbishop of Lwów, who equally identified with Polish and Armenian culture. A popular motto among the Galician Armenians was that “an Armenian is a double Pole.”
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The history of Gdansk geography, understood as an academic field of study is relatively short, and dates back to the first half of the twentieth century. However, geographical conditions, location and development of the city on the Vistula, the Baltic Sea, on the coast of the Gulf of Gdansk, leave no doubt as to the need for a very good knowledge of the geography by its residents. In the seventeenth and eighteenth century Gdańsk has become one of the most important centers in the country of culture and science and the implementation of new inventions. Gdańsk, the city of merchants and sailors, is also one of the important centers of plotting maps and atlases issuance of geographical, natural and finally astronomical. First Gdansk Academic Gymnasium, then under the name of Gymnasium Dantiscanum was established relatively late, because only in 1558. The first preserved statute gymnasium provided taught history in conjunction with geography, which from the beginning placed the Gdansk Gymnasium in a row the most distinguished institutions for the development of many disciplines. The first lectures in geography, by Bartholomeus Keckermann, were released under the title of Systema geographicum duobus libris adornatum et audience olim praelectum in 1612. The famous Gdansk Nature Society has been founded in 1742. In one of the first volumes published by the Society can be found to develop Gotffried Reyger devoted to observations weather in the city, based on meteorological data collected from 1,721 years.|After the end of the Second World War, in 1946, two-year Pedagogium in Gdansk-Oliwa was founded section studies geography and natural sciences with the Department of Geography. A year later Pedagogium transformed into the Pedagogical University, which created the Faculty of Life Sciences section of bio-geographical, which conducted a two-way studies of the biology of geography. In 2010, the Institute of Geography moved to the university campus in Gdansk-Oliwa. In the structure of departments geography functioned until 2005, pursuant to the Resolution of the Senate re-created at the Faculty of Biology, Geography and Oceanology Institute of Geography.
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On behalf of Lord Radouš. Interpreting a tale in the course of the centuries. The essay presents a survey of a tale’s development concerning a Lord called Radouš from Plzeň’s region. The character of Radouš appears first in the renaissance chronicle by Hájek z Libočan, who describes him as the founder of the Radyně castle and OldPlzeň. Older texts concerning Radouš have been collected by the collector Jaroslav Schiebl in his book “Hrad Radyně. Pověsti a staré tradice” (The castle of Radyně. Tale and old tradition.”) (1924). The author focuses on the changing image of Radouš in different historical periods including current interpretations (historical festivities, commercialization of the subject, and new literary adaptation).
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The international literary history focusing on the antecedents of the enlightenment era has a particular interest in nonadorantism, the most radical branch of antitrinitarianism. This article focuses on research about Martin Seidel (?–?, 16–17th century) and Szymon Budny (1533–1593). In Seidel’s case new documents have been discovered in the archives which reveal new relations and connections in his work life which make it possible to date the origins of nonadorantism to a significantly earlier time. The article sums up the English, German, Spanish, Polish and Italian papers, and while doing so, Budny and Seidel are repositioned on the Eastern-Central European religious map. The article sketches the relations between the works of Budny and Seidel, as well as those of Francis David (Dávid Ferenc) (1510?–1579), Jacobus Palaeologus (1520?–1585) and Matthias Vehe-Glirius (1545?–1590).
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The analysis of the role which the attorneys had in the judicial life of Transylvania between the 16th – 18th centuries started from the presentation of the legal framework included in Approbatae Constitutiones and continued with the presentation of some reference points of the way in which the attorneys exercised the defence function, within the various judicial proceedings. The judicial fight between prosecution and defence, the exceptions, the petitions and defences of culprits were pointed out also by reviewing a procedure carried out in Cluj county, with Kovács Benedek as subject, the procedure taking place between 27 April – 30 June 1785.
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The present study attempts an exploration of a hypothesis about the role of intermediaries in the history of Transylvanian Romanians during the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The paper is divided into three parts: the first two present the theoretical perspectives of the social influence of minorities and the role of brokers, two concepts borrowed from social psychology and sociology. In the third part of the study I have tried to combine these theoretical approaches into a working hypothesis in history, linked to the reassessment of the function performed in the evolution of Romanian society by a group labelled as deviant from the norm: the Romanians that acted as intermediaries between their own national group and the Hungarian state authorities. In terms of power, minority groups consists of people who think and act differently from the rest of the society in which they live, circumventing its rules in varying degrees. Communication between groups can be achieved directly when the groups are connected, or indirectly, through an intermediary (broker, middleman etc). There is a significant demand for intermediaries in those areas where communities are culturally, linguistically or geographically separated, and the reliable information flow between groups is reduced or absent. In 19th century’s Transylvania we are dealing with a border province in a multinational empire, and a population majority of language and denominations different from the ones of the State. The Romanian political elite rejected more or less overtly the contacts with state authorities, sometimes placing itself in public opposition to the central government. Communication between the two groups was quite difficult and negatively polarized due to latent conflicts and mutual distrust. In this context, the communication channels between groups were diverted, and the role of intermediaries was taken and assumed by a number of Romanian personalities among the intelligentsia.
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Celem badania było opisanie kulinarnej edukacji kobiet w XVI-wiecznej Rzeczpospolitej oraz znalezienie odpowiedzi na pytania: Kto mógł posiadać książkę kucharską? Czy przygotowywano kobiety do prac w kuchni? Dla kogo było przeznaczone Kuchmistrzostwo? Jaki miało ono związek z edukacją kobiet?
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The aim of this article is to promote and capitalize on the contribution of the19th century Transylvanian cultural elite, to the field of Roman archaeological heritage, namely: colonia Ulpia Traiana Augusta Dacica Sarmizegetusa Metropolis. The archaeological researches carried out between 1881 and 1893 were led by Gábor Téglás and Pál Király. Their work, which will be translated and reinterpreted in the present study, focused on five great Roman structures: the temple of the Palmyrene Gods, Mithras’ sanctuary, the Roman bath, the Roman houses and the amphitheatre.
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The paper analyses historical development of public expenditure control in Great Britain, with a special overview of English and Scottish institutions from XII to XVIII century. The author further examines development of institutional mechanisms of financial accountability, especially the establishment of the Public Accounts Committee and the Audit Office, as a predecessor of the UK National Audit Office. The author concludes that the historical overview of the system of public expenditure control can provide an important source of inspiration for further development of financial accountability system of the Republic of Serbia and proposes establishment of a special Committee for Budget Control of the National Assembly of the Republic of Serbia, which could, similarly to the UK Public Accounts Committee, undertake an important active role in the control of spending of taxpayers money.
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In the 16th century Polish Protestantism began to flourish and brought European civilisation many noble thinkers, including Jan Hevelius, Józef Naronowicz-Naroński and Krzysztof Arciszewski.
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Witold Adam Czartoryski (1822-1865), descendant of one of the oldest polish aristocratic families, was the firstborn son of prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, politician, diplomat, an eminent independence activist. For participation in the anti-Russian uprising (1830-1831), Adam Jerzy was sentenced by the tsarist authorities to be decapitated with an ax and had to emigrate with his family to Paris, where he became the founder and leader of the conservative group called the Hotel Lambert. This article reveals the aspects of his youth, which Witold spent in exile and that had influenced on his future as a potential successor to the widely admired and respected father. It exposes the difficulties encountered in connection with its spontaneous nature, the growing interest in everything connected with Poland and the Poles, and the pride resulting from the polish culture. The author allows the reader to observe the complex process of maturation of the young prince to carry out responsibilities in the military, politics and diplomacy. The article also tries to answer the question whether he was well prepared to fight for the freedom of Poland and if he had a predisposition for a worthy successor to his father as the leader of the Hotel Lambert. The present text is based on manuscripts from the archives of the home Library of the Princes Czartoryski in Cracow.
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Prior to the advent of frame structures, British architecture consisted of essays in local geology. The exception is London. From the 1620s onwards the utilisation of Portland stone as a construction material in the City and in Westminster increased significantly until the early twentieth century. Its choice depended on a number of parameters. These included availability and suitability for the intended use, the cost of transport from the quarry to the building site, and fashion. Although limestone and ornament were banned by the Modernists, Portland stone was still used in post Second World War British Modern architecture. Its use was governed by propriety imposed by the planning regulator(s). To illustrate this point reference is made to two iconic high-rise Modernist buildings in London, the Shell Centre (1953–1963) and the Economist Development (1962–1964).
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Always fortifications were a very important element of a town's landscape planning and development. The theory of town planning was described in the handbooks of military engineering and planning of fortifications. Nowadays the researches of fortifications are closely related with sciences of military engineering, architecture, art history, and economics. However, such researches have been rarely combined with the aesthetics and philosophy, with the conceptions of light, color and water. As the philosophers and culture researchers perceive the fortresses as an integrated part of the city culture nowadays, this article will delineate some non-typical views of these military objects.
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In der vorliegenden Studie wird die Verwendung der Bezeichnung vyskupas ‘Bischof’ im preußisch-litauischen Schriftum vom 16. bis zur Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts untersucht. In der litauischen Literaturgeschichte wird Martynas Mažvydas zuweilen als vykupas ‘Bischof’ bezeichnet. Allerdings war Mažvydas, der an der Königsberger Universität von 1546–1548 studierte und 1549 zur Amtszeit des samländischen Bischofs Georg von Polentz (Präsident war seinerzeit Johann Briesmann) seine Pfarrstelle in Ragnit antrat, zu keiner Zeit Bischof des Bistums Samland gewesen. Er übte nicht das Amt des höchsten geistlichen Führers eines Bistums aus, dessen deutsche Entsprechung Bischof, die lateinische episcopus ist. Insofern gibt es keinen Anlass ihn vykupas ‘Bischof’ zu nennen. In den Dokumenten der Preußischen Generalsynode vom 4. und 19. September 1554 gibt Mažvydas seine Position selbst mit Archipreſbyter Ragneten[ſis] und districtus Ragnetenſis Archipreſbyter, d.h. Erzpriester des Kirchensprengels Ragnit an. Im Untersuchungszeitraum, d. h. vom 16. bis zur Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts, wird die Bezeichnung vyskupas im preußisch-litauischen Schrifttum sowohl als historischer, d. h. in den biblischen Texten überlieferter, als auch als zeitgenössischer Begriff zur Bezeichnung des höchsten Geistlichen eines Bistums bzw. eines Kirchensprengels verwendet.
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In many areas of research, painful and lethal experiments on animals are common practice. Some of the most brutal experiments are carried out by military scientists, but painful experiments are performed by many scientists from other fields such as medicine, veterinary medicine, etc. Recently, there are many scientists and philosophers who justify experimenting on animals. The two most important ethicists who advocate the inclusion of animals in the moral community, but from different positions, are certainly Tom Regan and Peter Singer. Regan holds that we have to oppose the viewpoint that living beings with inherent value are regarded as beings that are valid only in relation to our interests. He concludes that the viewpoint of the law will not be satisfied with anything else but with total abolition of the animal experimentation. What kind of terrible experiments scientists have been able to do on animals are clearly shown from the titles of the experiments that were published by United Action for Animals, among which are: "Straw", "Warming", "Ignition", ''Staining'', ''Centrifuge '', '' Brainstorms'', ''Thirst'', ''Freezing'', ''Bleeding'', ''Multiple Injuries'', ''Radiation'', ''Spinal cord injury'', etc. For experimenters, animals are nothing more than a research tool. Test results on animals are often unusable for humans. For a long time, toxicologists know that a substance which is toxic to members of one species can be harmless to members of the second and vice versa. Singer says that number of questions can be posed: how can non-sadistic people cause the psychological death of monkeys or warm up dogs to death? He holds that the answer is in the uncritical acceptance of speciesism. Speciesism gives justification to the scientists so that they can relate to animals as nonliving beings, consumables or parts of equipment, and not as beings that can suffer and whose interests we have to take into account. Partiality, whether specific or racist, can not be justified, and so it follows that an animal experiment can not be justified also, unless it is so important that we could justify it just as the use of a man with brain damage.
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This article is composed of two parts and describes cultural and academic relations of Lithuania with Switzerland from the sixteenth to twentieth century. The first part deals with the Lithuanians at the universities of Zurich and Basel, the second-with the Lithuanians at the University of Fribourg. The first part begins with a description of the publications of a printing house in Basel: incunabula (there are 64 publications from Basel and one publication from Geneva in the libraries of Lithuania); books of the first half of the sixteenth century (Vilnius University Library possesses 233 from Basel, 11 from Zurich, and three from Bern); and with the editors-printers. The author of this article draws attention to the first research of Lithuanian historians relative to the Lithuanian students at foreign universities (Adolfas Ðapoka, Vaclovas Biržiška, and Mykolas Biržiška). She bases herself on the matriculation documents collected and published by the famous Swiss historian Hans Georg Wackernagel. Three volumes of the matriculation documents of the University of Basel include student lists from different countries from 1532 to 1726. Teachers (praeceptores), educators (morum ipsorum moderatores), servants (famuli) of the Lithuanian students in Basel were not omitted and were also entered in the matriculation documents.
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The article describes the relationships between Russia and Prussia during the 40–50’s of the 18th century, when they simultaneously rise to the level of the great European powers. Their interests begin to collide on the whole of Eastern Europe’s territory. As a result this leads to an open confrontation between Russia and Prussia in the Seven Years’ War 1756–1763, during which there are prospects for the liquidation of Prussia as a Russian competitor.
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The Russian Ambassador in the Ottoman Empire during the 80’s of the 18th century, Yakov Ivanovich Bulgakov, is sent to Constantinople in a crucial moment for the Russian politics and the Russo-Turkish relations. The development of the circumstances in the beginning of the 80’s leads to a remarkable expansion of his activities. The initial goal of signing a trade contract with Turkey, similar to the French and English capitulations, is reached, but the situation in Crimea and Caucasus, as well as in the Danube Principalities, are deciding to the relations of Petersburg with the Ottoman Empire, in which Bulgakov protects the Russian interests successfully. Bulgakov’s position concerning the Polish-Turkish relations is also presented in the research. There is also information about the work he does for the successful functioning of the Russian diplomatic delegacy in Constantinople and about the relationships he maintains with the ambassadors of the European countries. After Turkey declares a war to Russia Bulgakov is arrested, but he continues to send information to Petersburg from Edikule. There are two main subjects that find place in Bulgakov’s letters from 1788–1789, which are characteristic for the foreign political relations of Russia during the war conflict with Turkey: Sweden, with which Petersburg is at war since June 21/July 2 1788 and Poland, for which this period is sated with serious inner-political happenings. Bulgakov is set free in October 1789 and is immediately sent as an ambassador of the Russian Empress to Warsaw, where the revolutionary movements are getting stronger, so that they can become the next challenge for him.
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