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ABSTRACT: This article aims to study Sufism (taṣawwuf) and inspiration (ilhâm), which is the main means of the mystical knowledge, in the thought of Ibn Taymiyya who is known generally as an exponent of a tradition grounded on the understanding of Salaf. He is considered by majority to be a rigid opponent of Sufism because of his unconventional interpretations of Sufi terminology. Also, since Ibn Taymiyya constantly offers the Qur’ān, ḥadīth, and the opinions of Salaf as the base of religious knowledge, the idea that he does not lean toward inspirational and rational knowledge and he does not give a place for them in his epistemology came out and has grown in the course of time. As a result of our research, however, we realize Ibn Taymiyya admits the epistemological value of inspiration along with Sufism conditionally. While he divides Sufism into Early and Later periods, he examines inspiration in the context of knowledge (bâb al-ʿilm) which is considered to be a subcategory of supernatural events. Ibn Taymiyya, who believes that inspirational knowledge must be tested by means of the Qur’ān, Sunna, and the opinions of Salaf, without rejecting its reality, assesses the subject matter in detail through his own criteria. Therefore, this article, in which the subject is elaborated critically and descriptively, focuses on the approach of Ibn Taymiyya to Sufism and inspiration that is the basic element of Sufi knowledge.SUMMARY: Ibn Taymiyya, who is one of the most influential, productive, and controversial Muslim scholars in history of Islam, exerted sincerely to find out the best and the most reliable way of acquiring religious knowledge. Through his fruitful works, his enormous knowledge of the Qur’ān, ḥadīth, Kalām, and Islamic and Greek philosophy can be witnessed. His works where his epistemological, theological, and philosophical statements are found dispersedly, are dealing with many issues such as revelation, the human intellect, inspiration (ilhām), Sufism, Aristotelian logic, the doctrines of Shia sect, methods of commentary of the Qur’ān, ḥadīth, creation of the world, the divine names and attributes, jihad, and juridical ones. Of all issues about which Ibn Taymiyya provided his opinions, Sufism obviously has been one of the most problematic ones. Since Ibn Taymiyya criticizes Ibn al-ʿArabī who is considered to be the Greatest Master in Sufism, he has been acknowledged to be a virulent opponent of Sufism and its complements like knowledge of inspiration- unveiling which is bestowed to the heart of believers by God. It is correct to say that Ibn Taymiyya has objections to the conceptions of unification (ittihād), incarnation (ḥulūl), oneness of the existence (waḥdat al-wujūd), the fixed entities (aʿyān al-thābita), and the seal of the friends of God (khatam al-awliyā’) all of which are encountered abundantly in the studies of Ibn al-ʿArabī and Sufism. In addition to these conceptions, Ibn Taymiyya refutes kinds of unification including general unification and particular or specific unification.Through detailed investigations of the works of Ibn Taymiyya it is possible to realize that Ibn Taymiyya elaborates Sufism under the categories of Early Sufism and Later Sufism. The Later Sufism, which is mostly heretical, is also elaborated with the distinction of philosophical and practical aspects. Furthermore, it is realized that along with criticisms of the practical aspects, his objections intensify on the philosophical Sufism, which may be called pantheistic, monistic, and metaphysical Sufism, imported noticeably from non-Islamic sources like Greek philosophy, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism. While Ibn Taymiyya persistently defends that the validity of Sufism depends on obedience to the Qur’ān and ḥadīth only, he interprets in his own way the conceptions of the friendship of God and inspiration (ilhām). According to Ibn Taymiyya, those, who are counted among the Early Sufism methodologically, even if not historically, like ʿAbd al-Qādir al-Jīlānī, Sahl Ibn al-Tusterī, and Maʿrūf al-Karkhī follow the Qur’ān and ḥadīth precisely.As for inspiration itself as a way of acquisition of knowledge, it is worth noting that in Ibn Taymiyya’s teaching inspiration or unveiling (kashf) is not argued concerning its reality. It is neither a sort of active communication nor is it a superstition. On the contrary, Ibn Taymiyya suggests that inspiration is a kind of supernatural events (khawāriq), which can be seen as an effect (ta’thīr) or knowledge (ʿilm). In this respect, inspiration is examined under the category of knowledge. He believes that when God has lifted the cover from the heart of believers, the heart will be under the control of God. As a result of this divine control, the servants can find out the correct, valid, and permissible way to follow. Thus, Ibn Taymiyya, who classifies inspirational knowledge as divine (raḥmānī) and devilish (shayṭānī), emphasizes importance of religious and spiritual training for purification of the heart.When the validity or acceptability of inspirational knowledge is in question, Ibn Taymiyya offers a test in the light of the Qur’ān, ḥadīth, and the opinions of the Salaf. According to him, the soundness of inspirational knowledge can be verified as long as it is weighed on the scale of these sources of Islamic sources. The reason for offering a test to verify the accuracy of inspirational knowledge received by a person is based on his idea that receiving inspirational knowledge is not an indication of being one of the friends of God at all. According to Ibn Taymiyya, it is very possible to perform or receive inspirational knowledge as a supernatural event not only for the friends of God but also for polytheists, disbelievers, people of the Book, and people of the innovation. He, as is said above, does not argue the validity of inspiration concerning its epistemological reality and value. What is more, he would rather give precedence to inspirational knowledge over weak ḥadīth reports, weak argumentations, and weak analogies. Therefore, it can be said that if we had to constitute an epistemological hierarchy of Ibn Taymiyya, it would be something like that the revelation, the human intellect, and inspiration, respectively. Finally, it may be propounded that even if there are several conditions to accept inspirational knowledge, it is a reality in Ibn Taymiyya’s epistemology.
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Gathering information about theological Islamic dissidents/sects and classifying and listing them in various ways as a literary genre in Islamic literature has been of interest to Muslim scholars as a result of scholarly curiosity or in the aim of criticizing and refuting their ideas from a certain ideological and theological point of view. After especially taking the ḥadīth saying that the Muslim community will divide into 73 sects as a main reference, heresiological classifications or lists became more systematic and schematic. These heresiological classifications or lists are in fact mostly different attempts in terms of material, method and style. This enables to determine and offer possible traditions of classifying and listing sects based on the similarities, differences and connections among them.This dissertation that examines heresiological classifications and lists that emerged in particularly seven centuries after the hijra and appeared in books of various literary genres tries to identify their characteristics and historical development, and categories them according to their methods, scopes, styles and contents in order to reach a holistic understanding. Also it offers possible traditions for heresiological classifications or lists after analysing and comparing the available ones.
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Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm al-Zāhid al-Ṣaffār is one of the important representatives of the Kalām thought of the Ḥanafī-Māturīdī School. He was born in A.H. 450/ C.E. 1058 in Bukhara that is one of the city of Transoxiana/Mawara al-nahr where Maturidi School has been emerged around this socio-cultural environment. He completed his education and served as a leader (rais/ ṣadr) of the Hanafite scholars there until he was exiled to the city of Marv. Upon his return from exile, he passed away in Bukhara in A.H. 534/ C.E. 1139. The present study aims to determine his method in Kalām. The introduction outlines the subject, significance, purpose, method and sources of the research. In this study, it was employed a method that focuses on a person in which he/she is examined with his/her views and thoughts by taking into account his/her socio-cultural factors. By doing this, the first chapter of this study deals with the political, socio-economic and scientific situation in Transoxiana, and the activities of diverse religions, sects and philosophical schools in this region in A.H. V-VI/C.E. XI-XII. In the second chapter, it studies al-Ṣaffār’s life, scientific personality, works as well as the sources that he made references to in his works in detail. In the third chapter, the kalām method of al-Ṣaffār has been tried to be determined. For this purpose, it analyzes his extant works, Talkhīṣ al-adilla li-qawāʿid al-tawḥīd and Risālah fī al-kalām and elaborates first at his defense of the Kalām that gives a great importance to reason (ʿaql) and to intellectual debates, if necessary, in theological issues. Then it explores his theory of knowledge with his ideas on the definition, possibility, sources and types of knowledge, and the epistemological understandings he defensed or criticised. Furthermore, to determine his Kalām method, it evaluates his approach towards the value of ‘aql and naql (Qurʾān-Ḥadīth) as sources of knowledge. Since this issue is a distinctive tool for unveiling the kalām methods of different mutakallims and Muslim sects. Finally, it finds out the types of istidlāl, meaning inference of one thing from the other that he used when he argues and defends his views, and illustrates with examples.
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New museum reacts to criticism from religious groups and others, removing offending part and calling this a learning experience.
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Adopted in January, the ban, which prohibits any kind of religiously affiliated clothing, has not deterred students from wearing hijabs until now.
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Life under late ruler Karimov was tightly controlled, but stable and largely free of ethnic conflict, local Jews say.
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Complex reflects the close ties between religion and politics, two centuries after it was first planned.
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Māturīdism is an Ottoman identity and this identity was not limited, as is commonly believed, to the last period of the Empire. It maintained its formal existence throughout the Ottoman history. Nevertheless, the context in which the Māturīdism was located or with which it was associated changed in the course of time. In the early period when the eclectic way of thinking was dominant, Māturīdism as a creed was apparent mainly in the jurists whose ascetic identity was prominent and partly in the mystical currents that were essentially continuations of Yasawiyya. At this point, the Bukhara-centered Ḥanafī legal literature played a distinctive role. At the time of Meḥmed II and in the following period during which the philosophical kalām dominated the scene, the Māturīdism was relatively passive and was in search of a position against the Ash‘arism. The new Rāzian paradigm of thought that began to be felt strongly in the Ottoman lands with Meḥmed II as an attempt of integration into the global circulation of knowledge prevented to a certain extent the visibility of Māturīdism. However, even in this period, Māturīdism was remarkably reflected in the muqaddimāt-i arba‘a literature which was directly sponsored by Meḥmed II. The tradition of philosophical kalām in the Ottoman scholarship, just when it was about to yield significant results, was interrupted due to the struggle against the Ṣafawids. Transformation of this political tension, at the same time, into a fight against Shiism also brought about a constriction in the religious thought of the Ottomans. Shiism and its all other variants were bitterly attacked under the main heading of Rāfiḍa. Unfortunately such a refutational approach proved a boomerang and returned in time striking the Ottoman Ṣūfīs who stood near the line of the Ardabil Shrine before its Shiitization. Ḥanafī fatwā literature was used extensively in the refutation texts against Ṣafawids. This brought to the fore at first the Ḥanafite and then the Māturīdite identity. This paper attempts to analyze this changing emphasis on Māturīdism in the Ottoman period and the political and intellectual factors that supported and nourished it.
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This article deals with political socialization and political participation, in the context of visiting phenomenon, in Turkey. We took the Ali Baba Tomb in central Sivas and Celtek Baba Tomb in Celtek village as the sample of our study. In the study, political socialization and participation was seen as a dialectical process between individual and society. Visiting phenomenon embodying a rich historical, religious and cultural accumulation is important in that it defines the religious tendency of huge masses. As a matter of fact, they have realized their potitical socialization in a pretty much authentic culture with different interests, duties, roles and positions. At the same time, they have shown their political participation with reference to the religious world of meaning.
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Mamluks reigned in Egypt a long time is an era of Kipchak Turks that have influence management, and Kipchak Turks has been influential in a period in the administration there. During this period, that Turkish rulers do not know Arabic language well, Turkish language is spoken in the palace and also idea of being closer to Turkish manager screated an interest in learning. One of the famous scholars realizing that interest is Abū Ḥayyān al-Andalusī. Abū Ḥayyān by learning Turkish language especially from Fakhr al-dīn Divrigi and analysing written previously works, wrote Kitāb al-Idrāk li-lisān al-Atrāk. This book has consisted of introduction, vocabulary and grammar section. We also aimed in our study to examine Kitāb al-Idrāk in terms of content and than in terms of lexicography of the linguistic branch.
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There is a real need for a rational and scientific debate between all parties involved in environmental risk management in Romania and the region of Central and Southeast Europe against the human domination of nature. The issue of industrial risks is of great significance especially in the Romanian technology park highly wear and aging,involving specialized knowledge and industry-specific risk.Thus, the development of activities to increase awareness of hazards in communities located near some areas and industrial plants that pose a high ecological risk is required.The main ecotheological objective is to develop a network platform type and a coordination group through which it aims to implement the theological program in the light of environmental concerns.It is undoubtedly difficult for Theological Organizations to practically realize by themselves such systems involving additional resources for maintenance and operation of ecological values, such as ecosystem management and sustainability. Orientation toward concerns about environmental hazards and risks, health, and safety of the population, will help the achievement of constructive theology as philosophy, in the category of those who want to reach religious-environmental results while respecting community in which it is located.There is a real need for a rational and scientific debate between all parties involved in environmental risk management in Romania and the region of Central and Southeast Europe against the human domination of nature. The issue of industrial risks is of great significance especially in the Romanian technology park highly wear and aging,involving specialized knowledge and industry-specific risk.Thus, the development of activities to increase awareness of hazards in communities located near some areas and industrial plants that pose a high ecological risk is required.The main ecotheological objective is to develop a network platform type and a coordination group through which it aims to implement the theological program in the light of environmental concerns.It is undoubtedly difficult for Theological Organizations to practically realize by themselves such systems involving additional resources for maintenance and operation of ecological values, such as ecosystem management and sustainability. Orientation toward concerns about environmental hazards and risks, health, and safety of the population, will help the achievement of constructive theology as philosophy, in the category of those who want to reach religious-environmental results while respecting community in which it is located.
More...Being real or being thought as real
The experiments of quantum physics indicate that an electron will change its behavior/ reality depending on whether or not the electron is being observed as if the particle is aware that it is being observed. The reality thus is presumed to be, or only to be thought of as a scenario that can be altered, changed, or imagined differently depending on the observer or the screenwriter. Our historical development made us think that the reality has as many facets as we want it to have, and none is more real than the other, as long there is a self-conscious being aware of it even if it has more accuracy or it stands on more evidence or arguments each proponent can bring into it. Therefore, a world full of unseen creatures that moves and determines a child’s life is not less authentic than one full of invisible particles making the world running and moving for a scientist. Each has its proofs, trials, ways of probation, so it is entirely entitled to be considered ‘real.’ However, what happens when concurrent theories over the same circumstance pronounce several valid testimonies? Do we have to pronounce either their validity based on the evidence brought by their proponents or should we consider only one of them? On what grounds can we make either these selections? It would be wrong to say that the reality is, in fact, the construct of a multitude of layers, each with different consistency and evidence, each real and provable, therefore each entitled to be called ‘reality’? Hence, consciousness can change reality just by being aware of it. In this context, we will also take into account the story of creation and see how it fits in this context.
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The article is dedicated the role of the national leader of Azerbaijan Heydar Aliyev in the formation religious tolerance. The author considers the main principles of tolerance in the country, the role and relevance of religious values in a sovereign democratic country.
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Our approach focuses on the art of the Upper Palaeolithic portable art in Western and Southern Europe. This geographical area covers roughly the current territory of Italy, Spain, Portugal, France and Belgium. Portable art means all artistic representations on a movable support. In addition, we refer only to the visual arts and we exclude scenic arts, music, dance, and generally any kind of perishable art (including transient visual arts, such as sand drawings or paintings on bark) that has not survived to this day as an archaeological witness. We are analyzing figurines, carved contours, pebbles, pendants, pierced sticks, propellants, harpoons, lamps, pots, spears, spatula, rings, jewellery, and other utilitarian or non-utilitarian object that possess any form of decoration – figurative and / or geometric – and which is portable.
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Oni naučnici koji su ranije u dvadesetom vijeku, uz veliko pokazivanje naučnosti i historijsko/sociološke analize, predskazivali skoru smrt zapadne civilizacije, bili su u potpunoj zabludi. Poslije Prvog svjetskog rata, 1922. godine, Oswald Spengler je napisao svoju tada mnogo cijenjenu knjigu Propast Zapada. Nakon početka Drugog sv je tsk o g rata, 1941. godine Pitirim A. Sorokin objavio je svoju, na sličan način popularnu knjigu, Kriza našeg vijeka* . Prikazani veliki, opštepoznati obim besprimjernog razaranja i strahota Prvog svjetskog rata 1914 -1918 i pesimistična predskazanja ovih naučnika, kao i ono do čega je došlo poslije toga, su potpuno shvatljiva.
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The conducted studies convince of the effects that are achieved in the social rehabilitation of convicts, as well as the objective of the educational role of the prison chaplain. This objective is mainly prevention of pathological behavior which is realized by different forms of educational interaction.
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przeprowadzone badania przekonują o efektach, jakie uzyskuje się w resocjalizacji osadzonych, a także o celu, jaki przyświeca wychowawczej roli kapelana więziennego. Jest to przede wszystkim profilaktyka zachowań patologicznych realizowana poprzez różne formy oddziaływania wychowawczego.
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The article deals with the main world outlook and value properties of traditional personality in Indian philosophy. The main attention has been attended to a sense of human being according to the Oriental canons. The comparative analysis of human peculiarities in the main Indian religious and philosophical teachings has been made.From the 18th the process of comparison of personality in the Western and the Orient civilizations begins. The main distinctive feature of them is an attitude to the nature and environment. While ‘western’ person was formed under the influence of socio-economical factors, ‘Oriental’ person acquired personal traits due to development of religious and philosophical schooling.The origins of western researches of an anthropological pattern of the Orient civilization are very stereotyped. The reason of this occurrence is a subjective understanding of the Oriental personality by western researchers. The first scientists who noted it was Arabic thinker E.Said, who founded an Orientalism as a branch of learning. Moreover, important part from this point of view was the European aspiration for increasing its identity through the opposition ‘We VS They’.The validity of the Arabic thinker’s thoughts is confirmed by researches of Soviet scientist Ye. Torchinov. After the example of the Upanishads (i.e. Sanskrit sacred books), the scientist debunks Western prejudices as for human absence in the Orient. According to the treatise’s ideas, the main aim of human being is an achieving of release, which is possible only by means of personal effort. It indicates existence of subjective determination in the Orient civilization. These stereotypes and monotony are the result of scientific systematization and abstracting of the researches. We can not deny an availability of Western elements in the Orient and vice-versa.Typical representative of the Oriental typology of cultures is an Indian area. According to M. Weber, it should be paid a special attention to India because of originality of its cultural forms. The polyphony of evolution of religious and philosophical thought in India played an important role in the forming of anthropological pattern. Each of the Indian philosophical teaching was based on cosmic and moral law. Unlike the Western religious teachings Indian philosophy disclaims the thought of God, which rule the world.The main schoolings of orthodox and non-orthodox tradition of Indian philosophy differed according to their attitude to Veda. Orthodox, or classical tradition includes six religious and philosophical teachings. They are similar in the understanding of the world, i.e. the unity of Brahman and Atman. The aim of human being in accordance with these teachings is an overcoming of samsara.In particular, adherents of Yoga stress on an achieving of salvation by means of meditative practices. According to Yoga, human is identified with clear consciousness. The founder of Yoga Patanjali says that during the cognition human identifies with chitta – intellectual activity and reflection of the world. Release of chitta’s influence is an obligatory demand for a salvation.Such attitude to human we can see in Vaiseshika and Nyaya teachings. According to them an interaction between mind and body and the world occurs by means of regeneration of Atman. As opposed to Yoga schooling of Vedanta stressed on the rules of individual behavior.In Buddhism, which is one of the most popular Indian teaching, anthropological pattern is described by means of the Four Noble Truths. Sensation of suffering in Buddhism is a result of human pursuit of happiness. The most optimal way for salvation is a renunciation of passions and excessive emotions. The universal law of bodhi requires of perception of self- essence and environment in unity and integrity. Urge towards good for good is a integral part of karma’s purity. A major contribution of Buddhism to Indian philosophy is an universalization of human values regardless of social conditions. At the same time Buddhism as any Indian religious and philosophical teaching concurs an ahimsa principle, i.e. non-doing of evil for all kind of animate nature.Jainism also claims a salvation as the highest sense of human being. Contrary from Buddhism this teaching doesn’t require a severe asceticism. Unity of substance and spirit may be achieved by means of natural self-perfection. Mortification of own passions is one of Five Great Vows, which are the base of Jainism philosophy.Every religious and philosophical Indian teaching suggests an universal way of human being. Its essence is in an fusion of individual and world soul, which arouse release and salvation. The absence of Western cogito subject are compensated by the Orient impersonal subject. In spite of globalization, the research of main features of the Orient civilization is one of the most priority challenges nowadays.
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Vareški je kraj Franjevačkoj provinciji Bosni Srebrenoj iznjedrio znamenite franjevce i svećenike. Najpoznatiji su fra Matija Divković (1564-1631), utemeljitelj književnosti na pučkom jeziku u BiH, fra Filip Lastrić (1700-1783), “otac” bosanskohercegovačke historiografije i fra Grgo Ilijić Varešanin (1736-1813), apostolski vikar od 1798. do 1813. godine. Ovom nizu se s pravom smije pridružiti fra Lujo Zloušić, također Varešanin, koji je živio i djelovao u prošlom 20. stoljeću. Nakon 120 godina od njegova rođenja sjećamo se lika i djela ovoga plemenitog i marljivog bosanskog fratra.
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