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This study analyses the status and activity of two significant Austrian burghers, Paltram from Freithof and Gozzo from Krems in service of Ottokar II, the King of Bohemia and Duke of Austria. They were the supreme clerks under Austrian administration, whereas their financial options as well as their organizing abilities allowed them to get among the elite of high society. They also , like the nobility, could support various clerical institutions particularly monasteries and in the case of Paltram significantly interfere into political events, too. We can see through the example of their different destinies the rise of towns elites and general increase of the importance of towns in the middle European area.
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Although English law tried to restrict infants’ ability to prosecute, they played a significant role in the private prosecution (appeals) of crime. According to common law, an infant is a person under the age of twenty-one years, which is termed his full age. This article analyzes the model of proceedings in private prosecutions brought by infant appellants between the 13th and 18th centuries.
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The question of concubinage was very often mentioned in the sources of Polish synodal legislation in 12th–18th centuries. This extramarital union between a man and a woman was defined by the Latin term concubinatus. The more descriptive expressions used to explain this relation are as follows: peccandi libidinum, scelerata consuetudo or damnaticius status. The most extended terminology refers to the most relevant matter for the Catholic Church, namely to break with the sinful intercourse by the Christ’s faithful. The analysis of synodal decrees indicates that provided terminology expressed moral and legal qualification of living in concubinage. It was characterized by the pejorative meaning. Undoubtedly, it reflected the negative attitude of the Church towards these extramarital relations and people remaining in them. Provided terms applied mostly to clerics living in statu concubinatu. It shows how much attention the ecclesiastical authorities pay to clerical discipline. However, the fragments regarding the fight with concubinage of Christ’s faithful are less common. Particular legislators broadly used the terminology provided by the universal Canon law.
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The studies on coin circulation in medieval urban centers during the 12th-14th centuries are strongly represented in Bulgarian historiography. The author explores the whole numismatic material of various fortresses. A complete comparison between individual fortresses during this period has not been made. The aim of the present study is to attempt to analyze the economic status and development of the large urban centres in the period of the Second Bulgarian Tsardom – Ryahovets, Cherven, Shumen and Ovech, based on the published numismatic material from these cities.
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The text analyses the problem of the sanctity of rulers, especially non-martyrs, in Latin Europe in the Early and High Middle Ages. The starting point for this discussion is a frequently asked question about the reasons for the lack of such a phenomenon in Poland.
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Herodotus can be counted among the most important ancient historians. Indeed, his Histories represent the main source for the Graeco–Persian wars. However, the reception of his work has undergone many changes since the time it was written. The following study deals with Herodotus’ reception in the time of the Renaissance. The author tries to answer and explain two basic questions that are narrowly connected with his name. The first problem relates to his veracity. The study addresses the question of how he was accepted by humanists — was he considered a faithful historian or a less trustworthy storyteller? The second problem relates to him as a pagan author being accepted by Christians. The author focuses on the mechanism which enabled this unusual combination.
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This article examines the collection of Slavic Cyrillic manuscripts XIII-XVIII centuries which are kept at St. Panteleimon Monastery on Mount Athos. The characteristics of common and distinctive features manuscripts are distinguished by their national differences. The collection is divided into three types of membership books. Research results revealed chronological, geographical and genre differences manuscripts which finally confirmed their belonging to certain national traditions and the role of the collection – the treasury of Slavic national culture.Addressing the problems of Ukrainian Greek bonds XVII-XVIII centuries and overlapping themes, features of the spiritual culture of Ukraine and Greece of said period, manuscript heritage of both countries certainly attract great attention. The present research is Slavonic (Cyrillic) manuscripts Saint Panteleimon Monastery St. Mount Athos. The first information about the availability of Slavic Cyrillic manuscripts on Athos reaches 1142 years. Athos is closed to outside view and interventions territory. That’s why exactly in the monasteries of St. Mount manuscript treasures should be looked for. Perhaps it’s is unique in its content, as well as the Greek and Slavic origin. A Panteleimon Monastery is considered to be "rus" monastery. His second name is Rusyk. Therefore Slavonic (Cyrillic) Manuscripts should be looked for exactly here.The survey showed that 44 of the 10 reviewed manuscripts belong to the sacred-church books, 13-to church and prayer books, 21-to other books. At the same time this manuscript is distributed by chronology and geography in a very interesting way. According to the chronology of the whole entire collection spans the period from the XIII to the XVIII century.The sacred- religious manuscripts date from XIII to XVII., Liturgical church – from XIY to XVII., and other books– from the end of XV to the end of XVIII century. As already mentioned above, a collection has 75 codes which chronologically apply until XIX century. However, for this research the deadline is XVIII century. So, the gradation is clearly visible in kind of "aging" of sacred- church manuscripts after XVII century. In this collection manuscripts have not been updated. Situation is slightly better with the church and liturgical manuscripts. But at the same time, in the XVIII and XIX centuries they weren’t updated. Other books on the contrary appear in collection much later than the other (2 centuries), but at the same time have a privilege over the other and only retreat in the XIII century. This can be explained by the fact that other books on various topics, besides worship, began to appear on Mount Athos from the time when there was a relaxation of the strict statutory orders. Lack of updated books of the first two groups , is explained that the old monasteries had enough of old codes, or there was no need to update the Slavic manuscripts for liturgical practice. Because worship were done in Greek with Greek books, with the Greek ordinance.Yet it remains unclear why, since the XVIII century. Changed dramatically genre filled collection? Really, at least in the form of gifts or brought books, clergymen and church liturgical Church Slavonic (Cyrillic) literature did not get to the monastery? The impression is that the practical liturgical Slavic literature or intentionally destroyed (sold, granted), or stored in other collections. No less interesting is the geography of Slavic manuscripts in this collection. Referring to the table. Only 44 of the manuscript. With 10 sacred – Church books – only one has and one Bulgarian – Macedonian ( Skopje) origin. Nine manuscripts – Serbian. With 13 codes church – religious literature – eleven manuscripts have rural origins – one – Bulgarian , and most interestingly – one Ukrainian origin. And the Ukrainian book belong to Typicon VII. – liturgical charter church. It turns out that was not indifferent to the monks of St. Panteleimon Monastery in Slavonic liturgical practice . And the reason for the disappearance of religious literature of the late time of collection must be sought in other situations.Geography of other books is more diverse than theological literature. With 21 manuscripts represented in the collection of 6 -. Serbian, and it again early manuscripts chronologically completed in XV, Bulgaria is traditionally presented by one manuscript.Among other books are collections of two manuscripts, representing Ukrainian tradition. This collection of XVIII century, which included the works of the Holy Fathers and the Church Chronicle Exclusionary Dmitry of Rostov (Tuptalo) 1706.In addition to these two distinct Ukrainian manuscripts in the collection contains 6 more manuscripts, may belong to either Ukrainian or Belarusian or Russian tradition. These books were written in the modern form of the Church Slavonic letters, adapted (Russified) letters of XVIII century. In addition to these 6 manuscripts in the collection are five manuscripts written in Russian.Hence and by geographical and chronological description of the collection is clearly divided into two parts: Until the XVII century. It’s mainly Serbian manuscript. Since the XVII century. They are codes in Ukrainian-Belarusian-Russian traditions. Bulgarian tradition in all three types of books presented in a single code for each type.Now, as a genre filled collection. Among the sacred religious books-no Psalter, although no church cannot do without this book in practice. A Church of theological literature there are no systematization. There were presented rare examples of a particular literature, and no complex liturgical books. This suggests that the Slavic manuscripts in this collection do not provide for the liturgical practice, and saved as monuments, exponents of certain cultural traditions, language, church philosophy, art Slavic countries: Serbia, modern Macedonia, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Russia, Belarus and possibly Cyrillic Romania. Clear evidence of this hypothesis is the Bulgarian tradition, as mentioned above, is represented by one code for each of the three books.For Ukrainian culture opening a salient three Ukrainian manuscripts: Typicon XVII., Collection of the XVIII century. And Chronicle Exclusionary Dmitry of Rostov (Tuptalo) 1706 Presence in the collection of these three books for the Ukrainian Cultural Heritage is a godsend, and confirming the presence of Ukrainian books, and hence the tradition of Mount Athos in Greece.
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In this article we aim to explain the historical and cultural conditions in which were developed in Lower Albania, the language, education and even the Albanian national idea. These developments in this area encountered supplementary difficulties even compared with other Albanian territories. The presence of a strong Catholic community in the north attracted the attention and protection of the Papacy and the Catholic powers of Europe, which was reflected in the establishment since the Middle Ages, of a cultural inspiration of national character. Rather, in the south of the country simply dominated the concept of the Sublime Porte, that was also adopted from the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople itself and even from the European political and cultural circles, that considered that the Muslims were Turks, and the Orthodox were Greeks. Such a bias conditioned the policies and approaches of the Sublime Porte and of the European circuits, creating difficult conditions for the Albanian national idea. Consequently, in southern Albania, the Greek language continued in the post-Byzantine period to be the language used in cultural and diplomatic circles. It was used for communicational purposes not only by the Orthodox clerical circles, but also by secular circles. Sometimes even some Ottoman dignitaries used to communicate in Greek in their correspondence with Western chancelleries. In many cases, the use of the Greek language in these correspondences was determined by the fact that the profession of the writer and of the emissaries was an attribute of the clergy, for whom the Greek language was the language of faith but also a language of culture. The second reason lay in the broad privileges given to the Patriarchate of Constantinople after 1453 from the Ottoman sultans in the areas of civil administration and education. In this way, with the support of the Sultan, the Constantinopolitan Patriarchy and its network of clerics intended to guide the Orthodox populations on the road of Hellenization. Such a trend was reinforced when to the Patriarchy was granted the right to open Greek schools among Albanian Orthodox populations, and when after 1821, to the Hellenization action of the Constantinopolitan Patriarchy and of the Greek clergy in Albania, was added the organized action of the Greek state. Eighteenth and nineteenth century chronicles are full of examples of this combined action of the church and the Greek state to eradicate the language, culture and national idea among the southern Orthodox Albanians. Despite these unfavorable circumstances, even in the Lower Albania there were efforts for the development of the Albanian language and culture. A famous example is that of schools and publications in Albanian promoted by the Basilian missionaries in the region of Himara, during the 17th and 18th centuries. Also, the efforts to draft Albanian original alphabets, different from the Greek, Slavic and Latin alphabets, testify the development of a national consciousness by the most progressive layers of the Albanian society. It is not without significance, too, that during the 16th-18th centuries, individuals or entire Albanian communities of different cultural and religious backgrounds, considered as an important reference of their identity, well-known figures in the history of Albania, starting from Pyrrhus of Epirus, Alexander the Great of Macedonia and especially Georg Kastriot Scanderbeg
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Stone roofs over the churches were a typical constructive feature of Armenian cult architecture in medieval Crimea. Its earliest examples date back to the 14th—15th centuries. The archaeological digs yielded some whole and fragmented constructive elements, such as ridge blocks, roof tiles, gutters and water jets; also known are some individual in situ finds of roof debris and graphic representations of lost buildings with stone roofs. The new building technologies, imported from the mainland Armenia and Asia Minor, were organically adapted to the local architectural environment and had a positive impact on it, which is confirmed by existence of monumental buildings belonging to other cultures and confessions from the Crimean Peninsula.
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In 1979, the Romanian philologist I. Dumitru-Snagov published his dating of the Balkan map from the “Codex Latinus Parisinus 7239”. This date is 1396. The map shows Monchastro Castle — toponymic synonym of the medieval Belgorod on the Dniester. The historiographers started using this date for the early stage of the medieval Belgorod on the Dniester (the citadel). In the same monograph, the Romanian researcher dated Paolo Santini's treaty, which is incorporated in the Codex, but this dating seems to be wrong. The most likely date of the creation of the map is March of 1452. Santini's treaty “About the art of war and military machines” was copied not before 1449, from the work of Mariano Taccola “About machines”. The map and the treaty were consolidated under the cover of the Codex, but originally these were two different documents. The map was designed at the Hungarian Court during escalation of the military conflict on the Balkans before the conquest of Constantinople. It cannot beŁ used as evidence to determine the time of construction of the citadel in Belgorod. Moncastro is wrongly located on the Danube and does not reflect the real ensemble of the fortress in the middle of the 15th century.
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The author employs archaeological evidence and 13th — 14th centuries written accounts to analyze the history of the Bulgar Ulus of the Golden Horde from its formation in the beginning of the thirteenth century to its disintegration in the beginning of the fifteenth century. Pursuing his research, he also recurs to numismatic and epigraphic data. Materials from hillforts, unfortified settlements and necropolises allowed tracking the changes in settlement structures and urban development. Also, he offers a reconstruction of administrative areas within the Bulgar Ulus with centers in big cities like Bulgar, Dzhuketau and Kazan. Besides, there was a special territory with nomadic population. The author considers distribution of various religions and nationalities living in this territory. Generalization of studies in material culture of the population of the Bulgar Ulus has allowed to present versatile lifestyles of the contemporary people — from trades to games and food. The Bulgar art of the Golden Horde time is characterized. Special attention is paid to the history of the capital of the Bulgar Ulus — the Bulgar City. The author comes to conclusion that coexistence of nomadic and settled societies was typical for the Bulgar Ulus, just like for a considerable part of the Golden Horde territory.
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The paper presents an attempt to examine the relationship of different forms of garments, based on the theory of tayloring and basic patterns. This is quite a new approach, based not on external sources for costume (visual and written information), but on the design itself. The evidence for the analysis is the archaeological textiles of the pre-Mongol Rus’, clothes of the Golden Horde and the kind of clothing which could be found in Russian costume before the reforms of Peter I. In view of the scarcity of finds and poor preservation of archaeological textiles, this paper only outlines the logical connections between certain types of garments and presents the criteria for assessing these connections.We consider the different types of sarafan and conclude that their emergence and development is not associated with the Golden Horde. Kaftan-terlik probably has a genetic link with the Mongolian wear, the same connection can be assumed in case of a form of shirt known by ethnographic data.
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The article deals with the history of the term gosty ('guest') during the whole period of its existence (the 9th—17th centuries). Basing on the information analyzed, the author affirms that contrary to the prevailing historiographical tradition, the term did not change its meaning throughout the considered time period.As early as in the 9th—10th centuries “guests” were business representatives and trade and fiscal agents of the government and high-ranking individuals, as was reflected in the application of the Byzantine term “πραγματευτής” to the term “guest” (Constantini Porphyrogeniti imperatoris. De Ceremoniis aulae Byzantinae).The choice of the sixteenth century as the turning point when the “guests” ceased to be mostly merchants and became fiscal agents of the government seems erroneous. The mistake should be most probably associated with an incorrect translation of sources, when the perception of the synonymous usage of the words “guest” and “merchant” had led to the distorted meaning of the text.
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The portal of the so called mosque of Uzbek in Stary Krym is a spolia and used to belong to a different building — a mosque erected in 714 AH (=1314) during the rule of the Golden Horde Khan Uzbek. The exact location of this mosque is still not known. As the inscription above the entrance says, the first building was constructed by Abdul-Aziz ibn Ibrahim al-Arbeli, whose ancestors came from the medieval Iraq. The stylistic features of this building witness of an artistic tradition spread in Central Anatolia during existence of Seljuk emirates. The offered reconstruction of the lost part of the portal is preliminary, it is just a sketch for analytical purposes. The composition of the nine-tier stalactitic conch relies on a geometric dimensional figure with 6-fold symmetry of rotation. In the context of processes related to the evolution of the Golden Horde state and symbols of power, the secondary use of the portal in a new structure dating to the early 16th century is a demonstration of spiritual continuity pursued by the founders of the Crimean Khanate.
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The paper examines a collection of nineteenth-century photographs housed in the Iconographic Laboratory of the Special Collections Department of the University Library in Poznań. These unique photos were taken by Regierungsrat Meydenlender in 1887. Some additional prints of Meydenlender’s photos are also kept in the Museum of the City of Poznań. Illustrating the state of preservation of the Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Inowrocław, showing the then damage to its walls and alternations done to the church in the course of 1900–1902 reconstruction, the photographs provide a valuable source for any conservatory works. The article explores several issues related to this barely known photographic material.
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The large-scale archaeological excavations of the past years yielded a rapid increase of archaeological finds and observations. This large amount of new evidence enabled the observation of wider environmental archaeological relationships. In the study we reconstruct certain environmental and settlement pattern changes from the 13th to the 18th centuries based on archaeological data from the southern shore of Lake Balaton and the cities of the Danube Bend region. The settlements on the shore of Lake Balaton and along the Danube reacted similarly, but with a temporal lag. Hydroclimatic changes caused a shift in the location and structure of lake- and riverside settlements, which was of a horizontal character in the case of Lake Balaton, and of a vertical character in the case of the Danube Bend region.
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