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The campaigns of 1443 – 1444 of Władysław III of Poland (Władysław of Varna) were among the most important events in medieval Europe during the 15th century. There are numerous historical sources about them – Polish, Hungarian, Ottoman, Czech, Italian, etc. Some of them have been translated into Bulgarian language, others still wait to be published. The aim of this publication is to present and analyze the translated versions of two historical sources unknown to Bulgarian historiography and not used by the researchers on the subject so far. The first source is “Il Regnodegli Slavi” (“Тhe Realm of the Slavs“) by Mauro Orbini, and the second one is “A Short Novel about Skanderbeg”. These two sources provide important information about the two campaigns, and especially about the attitude of George Kastriot (Skanderbeg) to these events. They should be used by the Bulgarian researchers on the topic.
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The paper try to give answer on the questions about arms and armour used from Byzantine warriors in the final years of life of independent Greek States and in the remaining year still the end of 15thc when Ottoman rule will put an end on the military tradition brought by different social layers. The author’s opinion is that tracing post Byzantine society we can reveal weapons and tactics used by Romaioi before capture of Constantinople by the turks. Pivotal pointsare Italian sources from 1470s that mention a new type of military formation. Mentioned by Marino Sanudo, Philip de Comin and Molines like “stradiotto, stradioti”, they will become very popular in European war theatre. Besides written sources are used representations in works of art. They represent warriors with no typical for Western Europe outfit.
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The Wallachian princes’ names were preceded in most of their charters by a short word (“Io”). Although many historians tried to find its origin in the proper noun “Ioan–Ioannes”, Marin Tadin suggested that “Io” might come from the short form of the invocatio verbalis (“In the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit”), the first letters of the Slavonic words “name” and “father” being united in the particle “Io”. This article tries to analyze whether the Wallachian documents before 1500 contain invocatio verbalis and if so, how many of these documents were issued by Wallachian princes whose names were preceded by “Io”.
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Based on so far unused sources or used only marginally, the article presents the history of the royal horse breeding site near Przemyśl and the related office of the equerry – the only one which functioned in the Crown at the end of the Middle Ages and the dawn of the early modern era. The text describes the evolution of the office’s endowment, its competencies and duties, changes in its name, and, finally, the composition of its personnel from the end of the fifteenth century to 1614, when the last holder of the office died.
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Review of: Beata Możejko: Peter von Danzig. The Story of a Great Caravel, 1462–1475. Aus dem Polnischen von Barbara Gostyńska. (The Northern World, Bd. 86.) Brill. Leiden – Boston 2020. 308 S., Ill. ISBN 978-90-04-35810-2. (€ 142,–.)
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Pope Nicholas V issued a bull to Serbian despot George Brankovic on October 24, 1453, in which he took the despot under papal protection. The bull was analyzed within a broader context of the anti-Ottoman crusading policy of the papacy after the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople (1453). Crusading projects of the Curia and King Alfonso V of Aragon considered the involvement of Balkan Christians in the war against the Turks. The Serbian Despotate, as a state on the direct frontier with the Ottoman Empire, was an integral part of these projects. The growing Ottoman threat caused more intense contacts between despot George and pro-Crusade Western powers, resulting in the issuance of the mentioned bull. The first part of the bull calls on the secular and church authorities to show solidarity with the despot during his confrontations with the Ottomans. The protection of George’s land and personal property during the war was guaranteed. In the next part of the bull, the Pope threatened to punish those who desecrated churches and icons in the despot’s land. This note most likely refers to Franciscan missionaries who were known for their aggressive methods in the conversion of the Orthodox in the border area between the Serbian Despotate, the Kingdom of Bosnia, and the Kingdom of Hungary. The Pope’s note in the bull was probably given to reduce the impact of religious tensions, thus creating conditions for the implementation of the church union. The policy of the union was equally motivated by the religious and political idea of Christianity unified in the anti-Ottoman Crusade. In the last part of the bull, despot George’s confession of faith was confirmed to be in compliance with the faith defined by the Council of Florence (1439). The Serbian Despotate was most probably involved in negotiations about the church union before 1453 at the Councils of Basel (1431–1449) and Ferrara/Florence (1438–1439). Despot George was probably aware of the correlation between the church union and the anti-Ottoman crusading policy. Therefore, the union served as a theo-political means in the mentioned period, as well as in 1453. In the papal bull, George was given the right to observe the Eastern Christian customs, which was in accordance with the decisions of the Council of Florence and the way they were implemented in the East. Contemporary notes of friar John of Capistrano against the validity of despot George’s religious beliefs have been cited as the key reason for doubting the unionist information from the bull. Capistrano’s accusations, however, should be observed separately from the Serbian Despotate’s relations with the Curia. They were primarily the result of the friar’s rigorous attitudes towards non-Western Christian traditions, as well as his active support to the Franciscan missionaries criticized by the papal bull. The alignment of despot George’s faith with the Florentine Confession implied acceptance of the purgatory doctrine. In that way, from the papacy’s point of view, the indulgences given by the crusading bull Etsi ecclesia Christi (1453) could apply to the despot. Despot George’s distancing from the idea of the church union no later than 1456 confirmed the interdependence of crusading and church union policies in his political actions. By that time, despite all the attempts and projects, it became clear that the actual crusade would not be waged.
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We have got used to seeing Dracula as a bloodthirsty vampire, a creature of night and darkness, the embodiment of the devil. This myth is built on some poor knowledge of occult myths and symbols (by occult we mean hidden and not evil because not everything that is hidden is also evil). We do not intend here to dismantle Dracula's archetypal image but we just want to draw attention to the fact that the myth has other deviations.
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Archaeological research carried out in 1976 in the area of the Royal Court at Târgovişte, under the leadership of the late archaeologist N. Constantinescu, brought to light traces of a dwelling, dating to 1380-1390. The house was equipped with a stove decorated with disc tiles and perforated circular tiles, mounted on bitronconic pot stove tiles. The iconography of the openwork circular tiles shows, on some examples, an equestrian character, armed with a sword, and on other examples a folk dance scene. Archaeological research carried out in 1920-1922, at the Royal Court of Argeş, under the coordination of Virgiliu Drăghiceanu, brought to light, among other medieval vestiges, tiles used to decorate the stoves of royal palaces. Three fragments of unglazed tile-plate, dating to the XVth century, have as iconography a pair of dancers accompanied by a bagpiper. A cross is shown in the center of the composition, a Christian symbol, which suggests that the slow dance scene is taking place under the divine blessing, in connection with a wedding ceremony.
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The site of Târgşoru Vechi attracted the attention of historians and archaeologists in the first half of the 20th century, mainly due to the medieval buildings visible on the surface. Thus, among others, Nicolae Iorga, Constantin C. Giurescu, Ion Ionaşcu, the architect Virgil Drăghiceanu, G.M. Petrescu-Sava (formerly Gh. Zagoritz) and Nicolae Simache wrote about the medieval monuments and the history of Târgşor. In the medieval period Târgşor was one of the oldest and most important urban centres of Romania. Târgşor was without doubt ‘the city of Mircea the Elder’, the famous ruler and lord of Wallachia and the ‘father’ and founder of Târgşor. Furthermore, Târgşor can be considered the equivalent in status to Ploieşti before Ploieşti was founded. The medieval fair at Târgşoru Vechi was documented on 6th of August 1413 in a commercial privilege granted by Voivode Mircea the Elder (1386-1418) to traders of Braşov. This article proposes a possible interpretation of the development of the medieval city, starting with some preliminary observations: the medieval city was located on a plain, without geographical constraints; the medieval city was not surrounded by a fortification, therefore not potentially constrained in its development; the medieval city probably developed quickly in the context of what is called a Novum Forum (‘New City’) in the earliest documents. The analysis of the written sources combined with the results of the archaeological research provide new hypotheses and research directions towards a more complete knowledge of the history and evolution of one of the most interesting and important boroughs of Wallachia.
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Based on the example of the Kolychev and Neledinsky families, the article discusses some forms of emigration to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the Muscovite state in the second half of the fifteenth and early sixteenth century. The main task was to trace the roots of the analysed families, determine the reason for their appearance in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and see their adaptation to the local environment. It has been proved that the Neledinskys originated from the Novgorodian Land, from Biezhetsky Verkh, and they migrated to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with the duke of Vereya. Moreover, both families were associated with the court of the dukes of Vereya at different times. The Kolychevs, on the other hand, descended from the servant nobility of Moscow, who also received landed estates in the Novgorodian Land, and their migration was originally economic. At the end of the fifteenth century, Timofiey Kolychev found himself in a situation of internal migration – because of the war with Moscow, he moved from the Smolensk principality to the Kiernov district. The Kolychevs were also connected with the court of Albertas Goštautas, as were the Neledinskys, whose relative Vasily Kobylin served as Goštautas’ court marshal. The analysis of the archival sources made it possible to establish the end date of Semen Podberesky’s term as Kiernov’s governor and the new governor’s name.
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Review of Новое прочтение или дорисовка? Илья Лемешкин, Портрет Франциска Скорины: к 550-летию со дня рождения книгоиздателя, Travaux du Cercle linguistique de Prague. Nouvelle série, vol. 10, Vilnius–Prague 2020. 298 с.
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The present text attempts to reconstruct the sphragistic systems of the Cistercian abbeys from the Diocese of Cracow to the beginning of the early modern era. The source material (seals and the documents in which they are mentioned) has made it possible to distinguish several stages in the formation of these systems. The author indicates the seals that make up a given system, and, as far as possible, determines their hierarchy and legal competencies, and describes the circumstances in which they were used. The research results are also confronted with monastic legislation on seals.
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The article presents a previously unpublished list of participants in the 1412 royal summit organised by Sigismund of Luxembourg in Buda, found in the manuscript kept in the Universitätsbibliothek Leipzig, Ms 1309. Attention is paid to the manuscript’s content, the place and time of its origin and its provenance. The richest source for reconstructing the summit’s participants, the list contains almost twice as many personal names as the other list known to date, is preserved on a folio held in the Magyar Nemzeti Levéltár, DL 39277. The final part of the article is an edition of the list, with an attempt at identifying persons listed therein.
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In the fifteenth century, there were two different Iskender Bey serving in Rumelia. These two historically important figures, serving in the same century and in the same geography, often caused confusion. The main aim of this article is to discuss Iskender Pasha, the servant of Mehmed II and explain his activities in the fifteenth century Rumelia. Iskender Pasha was appointed by Mehmet II. as the Bey of Bosnia Sanjak in 1475. He served in this position until the end of the reign of Mehmed II. and continued his successful raids during the reign of Bayezid II. who appointed him as the Gavernor of Rumelia in 1483. After serving in this position for two years, he was appointed back as the bey of Bosnia sanjak in 1485. The appointment of Iskender Pasha multiple times as the bey of Bosnia sanjak is closely related to his successful raids as well as his knowledge of the region. He was promoted to the rank of vizier by Bayezid II. in 1489 and served in this position for ten years. Towards the end of his life, with the starting of the Ottoman-Venetian Wars, Bayezid II, with the aim of benefiting from his experience, reassigned him once again as the bey of Bosnia sanjak. Iskender Pasha continued his military and administrative activities until the last years of his life and died in 1505. Iskender Pasha is also famous for the intelligence network that he has established. In this context, he gathered information through his spies about the operations of various states in the Italian Peninsula. Through this he tried to change the balance of power in the region in favor of the Ottoman Empire. This study discusses the historical personality of Iskender Pasha and his activities in Rumelia in the light of the documents from the Ottoman archives, chronicles and copyright-review works.
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The gord of Szarlej is located on a small peninsula on the south-western coast of Lake Szarlej at the mouth of the river Noteć. Gopło - a ribbon lake – reached that far in the late Middle Ages. The gord of Szarlej was established in the last decade of the first half of the 14th century on the initiative of Kazimierz Ziemomysłowic, a Kuyavian prince and the lord of Gniewkowo, or alternatively by his son and successor, Władysław the White. The gord in Szarlej was built following destruction of the previous ducal residence in Gniewkowo during an invasion of the Teutonic Knights in 1332. The stronghold was a favourite residence of Władysław the White, prince of Gniewkowo until 1363 when he placed a lien against it to Kazimierz the Great, king of Poland. Most probably, after 1382 another ruler of Kuyavia, prince Vladislav II of Opole, handed over the stronghold in Szarlej to the affluent Kuyavian Ostoja family. The first nobility owner of the Szarlej estate (encompassing the stronghold, the villages, Łojewo, Witowy and Karczyn), confirmed in the sources, was Mikołaj of Ściborze (†1457). He was a member of the political elite of late-medieval Kuyavia.
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The article is devoted to the problem of analyzing the work of English and foreign court artists in the context of the formation and development dynamics of the cultural and intellectual community in the era of the Tudor dynasty. The authors refer not only to well-known artists, but also to a number of original masters familiar to a narrow circle of foreign and domestic researchers. The novelty of the article is determined not only by the introduction of these personalities into scientific circulation, but also by the approach to the analysis of the material: in addition to referring to the artistic features of creativity, the authors are interested in the range of occupations of these masters, their financial situation, the degree of proximity to the court and its reasons. The purpose of the work is: to find out to what extent the results of their work contributed to the emergence and development of a unique microclimate, necessary for the existence of a cultural and intellectual community at the court of the Tudor monarchs. The following methods were used: problematic, comparative- collation, retrospective-perspective analysis, as well as cultural-historical and iconographic methods of art criticism. The authors come to the conclusion that the English royal court in the period under review attracted not only British, but also foreign artists, many of them showed themselves simultaneously in different fields of activity: as portrait painters, miniaturists, architects and engineers. The features of the participation of royal persons in the development of court culture, in the degree and forms of interaction with court masters, were varied. Thus, undoubtedly, the work of the considered masters contributed to the formation and development of the cultural and intellectual community of this historical era and demonstrated the potential of influencing the development of English court art in subsequent times.
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The hand fan has started to take place in classical Turkish poetry since the 15th century as an accessory that complements the clothing culture and an item that facilitates daily life. Being used around the palace means to praise, sometimes associated with the beautiful elements of the lover. Mirvaha, meges-rân, bâd-bâz, bâd-bâr, bâd-bîz, bâd-bîzen used synonymously with it, show wide scope in Classical poetry. In this study, fan and use of synonymous in Classical poetry will be detected in magazines and divans which are belonging 15th-19th centuries. Established similes with it, functions, types, movement relationship, poets rhythm and harmony, will be explained with sample couplets. Relationships will be examined with the beauty of lover The hand fan is reflected in poets' rediff choices as sought-after. Ghazals with hand fan rediff written by Zâtî, Mr Hayâlî, Mesîhî and Nazmî from Edirne will be examined in terms of meter, tone, meaning-content unity, and determined whether ghazals are nazires or not.
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Several sources report Gregory Tsamblak’s journey to the Council of Constance. His journey to the Council was arranged by the Grand Duke Alexander Vytautas. Before the trip to Constance, the Synod of Ruthenian Bishops in Navahrudak elected Tsamblak as Metropolitan. The synod deposed Metropolitan Photios, who remained mostly in Moscow, ignoring the Lithuanian and Polish bishoprics. The bishops gathered in Navarhudak accused Photios of stealing Church treasures from Kyiv. In many historical summaries of the Kyivan Metropolitanate written in the seveteenth and eighteenth centuries, the information about the Council of Navarudak was repeated. The story of the Synod and the deposition of Metropolitan Photius became one of the cornerstones for establishing the autocephaly of the Kievan Metropolitanate. Gregory Tsamblak, upon his arrival in Constance, proclaimed in his speech the intention of Church union. There are two versions of his speech that have survived to this day: Ruthenian and Latin. The article examines both in a comparative approach. The Latin version of Tsamblak’s speech was included into the documents of the Council. The Ruthenian version is contained in the manuscript that belonged to St Josaphat Kuntsevich.
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