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The article analyzes two accounts of the holy orders received by Stanisław of Kowal, a priest from the Włocławek diocese, at the end of the 15th century. The original documents including the content of the accounts have not been preserved – we are familiar only with their copies, which were recorded in the files of the General Consistory of Włocławek. The first account was prepared in Cracow on 29 September 1493. It includes the information about Stanisław being ordained to acolyte by the suffragan bishop of Cracow Paweł. The other account was written in the chancery of the bishop of Chełm Maciej. It reads that in 1494 the bishop Maciej granted Stanisław of Kowal all higher holy orders. The “source annex” enclosed to the main part of the work constitutes the edition of both sources discussed in the article.
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Until the beginning of the 18th century in Royal Prussia and the Duchy of Prussia there existed a shared consciousness of belonging to one country. This feeling is also present in the regional historical works. The common country “Preußenland” was founded on the territory of the former Teutonic state. Political changes taking place after the Thirteen Years’ War were not taken into account in this narration. Functioning as part of the Kingdom of Poland guaranteed certain regional freedoms. The characteristic feature of the Prussian historiography was the description of pagan times in a negative way comparing them with the Christian times. The rebellion of the Prussian towns was depicted as the result of the arrogance of the Teutonic Order starting from the times of the rule of Konrad von Wallenrode. The outbreak and development of the Reformation hindered the process of the creation of the rival regional identities. Historiographers did not use the sources to create one general narration, but they entwined various, sometimes contradictory, narratives in their works.
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The loss of the significant part of the territory by the Monastic State of the Teutonic Order after 1466 entailed structural changes in the state. Inspections constituted an important scrutinizing factor in various fields of life. They were a permanent element of the reforms undertaken in the Teutonic Order. The expertise of the inspectors originally was not precisely defined. However, with time they became more and precise. In the times of the rule of Grand Master Heinrich Reuß von Plauen we know only about one inspection from the Austrian bailiff in 1469. During the rule of the subsequent Grand Master Heinrich Reffle von Richtenberg (1470-1477) no inspection was recorded. During the times of Martin Truchsess von Wetzhausen (1477-1489) problems connected with the reform of the monastic life in Prussia were addressed. The discussion concerned the problem of poverty among Teutonic brothers. The great inspection was planned to take place in 1481 prior to the General Chapter. However, the General Chapter did not take place. The inspection of Livonia was postponed for 1488. In the times of Johann von Tiefen (1489-1497) the forms of inspection applied so far were discussed. One of the evidences of this discussion was a letter written by the secretary of the Grand Master’s chancery Dr Michale Sculteti, which included forms intended for the inspection. Friedrich von Sachsen-Meißen (1498-1510) at the turn of 1498/1499 issued a regulation concerning inspections and appointed inspectors. In 1502 a detailed catalogue of questions was compiled in the Teutonic chancellery as it had been earlier done by Sculteti. In the times when the Grand Commander was Simon von Drahe (1507-1510) inspections became an important tool of the internal policy of the Grand Master Friedrich von Sachsen. The decision of the General Chapter saying that an inspection should take place every year in the Teutonic Order was enforced. However, in the times of the Grand Master Albrecht von Brandenburg0Ansbach (1511-1525) inspections ceased to play an essential role in the internal policy. Only one inspection from this period is recorded – in 1519.
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Titles, seals and coats of arms of Lithuanian dukes have not been hitherto the subject of interest of historians as this issue was mainly addressed marginally in the studies on the symbols of power of Grand Dukes of Lithuania, particularly Jagiellons. Owing to the considerable number and diversification of dukes living in the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania prior to the Union of Lublin, the article focuses on the analysis of titles, seals and coats of arms used by the Gediminas family and their descendants. In the period under discussion the dukes played a major social and political role, particularly at the end of the 14th century and at the beginning of the 15th century since they ruled their own feudal duchies and cooperated (or competed) closely with the Grand Duke. Although in the 15th century they lost their political sovereignty and became part of the class of landowners, they continued to keep many privileges and still played a major role in political and social life, particularly in their provinces. Enjoying the authority and extensive influence, the dukes generated the set of symbols of power and importance, which is worth examining. The analysis of the most representative monuments shows that titles, seals and coats of arms constituted a kind of indicator reflecting the social status and the position of the Gediminas family in the country: different symbols defined the rank of the Gediminas family as feudal dukes, and different symbols referred to their position as wealthy landowners. Both in the first and second situation, the dukes were capable of using the symbols in such a way so as to create their propaganda image and express far-reaching political aspirations. The symbolism of grand dukes, in particular one of the Jagiellons, was available to the dukes and they willingly used it. The fact of being inspired by the monarch’s symbols seems to differentiate Lithuanian dukes from other branches of the ruling European dynasties. It may mean that dukes considered the fact of being related to grand dukes rather than their wealth to be the source of their power and importance.
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The article presents Nicolaus Copernicus as a clergyman against the background of the momentous epoch in the history of Europe – the transition period from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance. It depicts the great astronomer, lawyer and economist against the background of the substantial cultural and religious event which took place in connection with the Reformation. In the text the author justifies why Copernicus, as a canon of Ermland, had a lower ordination, even when he took over the canonry of Ermland. The author also presents the context of Copernicus’ origin in Toruń and Royal Prussia.
More...Przyczynek do autonomii prawno-ustrojowej miast w Prusach na początku XV wieku
The article is devoted to the conflict between Peter Steynort, a miller from the Dzierzgoń [Christburg] commandry and the inhabitants of the Old City of Elbląg in the years 1411-1412. The details of the conflict are known from the claim put forward by Steynort to the Grand Master. In the first part of the article the conflict is described against the legal and political conditions in Elbląg at the beginning of the 15th century, while the second part includes the edition of the source. In June 1410 Peter Steynort purchased on credit an inn in the village of Myszewo [Mausdorf] situated in the patrimony of the Old City of Elblag. A month later the inn was burnt down by the Lithuanian-Ruthenian troops taking part in the siege of Marlbork [Marienburg]. In March 1411 Peter Steynort returned to Myszewo, but refused to pay off 140 marks for the inn and two hides of land saying that the commander had not agreed to the transaction. The essence of the conflict was the discrepancy between the rule of territorial jurisdiction and personal jurisdiction along with the right to exemption. The authorities of Elbląg had full rights to execute the judicial power on the territory of the city and the patrimony. On the contrary, Peter Steynort believed that he could not carry out legal actions without the permission of the commander. The source material published here shows the daily activities of the city’s courts and the belief shared by the Elbląg elites about the right to the legal-political autonomy of the city.
More...Uwagi na temat budownictwa warownego zakonu niemieckiego w późnośredniowiecznych Prusach
The article constitutes a collection of remarks concerning military aspects of the construction and functioning of the Teutonic castle in Bezławki (Bayselauken, Bäslack) in the last decades of the 14th century. Speculations included in the article refer to opinions expressed by the authors of the collective monograph about the late medieval settlement complex in Bäslack published in 2013. It presents the findings of archeological research in the castle and the village in the years 2008-2012. Remarks presented in the article concern three out of six problems which are considered the most essential. While it goes beyond doubt that the castle played an important defensive role, the hypothesis of it being a “fortified camp” for the army during military actions of the Teutonic Order against the Lithuanians and Ruthenians has been undermined. It is not possible to consider it to play a military role on a significant strategic level, as do the authors of the monograph of 2013. In the second part of the article the author undermines the hypothesis about the “systematic” character of the complex of fortifications situated on the eastern Prussian border. If the castle in Bäslack was indeed part of some defensive system, it could operate on the local level and consist of an insignificant number of elements including longitudinal fortifications constituting the so called “Landwehr”. The next issue addressed by the author was a problem of the typology of the term “wildhaus”. As in the 14th century the term connoted the location of the fortification on the border of the forest, the author shows a far-reaching morphological diversity of fortifications on the eastern outskirts of the Prussian state, which were or could be classified as “wildhauses”. Thus, a “wildhaus” cannot be classified as a morphological type of a fortification. The typology of fortifications based on the morphological criteria cannot be connected with the typology based on the administrative and terminological criteria. Archeological examination of the Bäslack fortification evinces its major cognitive potential and makes us aware of how little is known about the functioning of minor fortifications in late medieval Prussia. Further research in this field belongs to one of the most important elements of historical science in the Prussian regional dimension and related branches of science.
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The edition presents the sources concerning the borders between the Duchy of Słupsk and the Monastic State of the Teutonic Order in Prussia of the 14th and 15th century. The basis for the edition are records included in the boundary book – the so called Grenzbuch B with the entry number OF 270a preserved in XX. Hauptabteilung in the Secret State Archive in Berlin-Dahlem. Among the published sources, texts no. 3, 6, 7 were edited by Reinhold Cramer, but they fail to include the dates (no. 6, 7) and the explanations of topographic names appearing in them. The remaining texts were not published (no. 1–2, 4–5, 8–12). The first group of sources (no. 1–4) was written in the period from the second half of the 14th century to the beginning of the 15th century. The second group of descriptions (no. 507) resulted from the circuit [Polish: ujazd] around the boundary by the Gdańsk commander Albrecht, earl von Schwarzburg of the end of 1405. They were included in the introductory Pomeranian-Teutonic border agreement of 14 October 1407, next in the sealed agreement of 23 September 1408. The creation of the third group of descriptions (8–9) should be associated with Teutonic preparations to the arbitration agreement in front of the Roman and Hungarian king Sigismund of Luxembourg, and with the activity of the sub-arbiter Benedict Makrai in the years 1412–1413. The last group of descriptions (no. 10–12) was created in the situation of the conflict concerning the establishment of the border between the Człuchów commandry and the Szczecinek land in the vicinity of Dołgie Lake in 1417. None of the published sources presents the whole Pomeranian-Teutonic border from the estuary of the river Łeba to the Baltic Sea in the north to Lędyczek in the south, but its individual fragments. Description no. 1 includes the description of the border between the Człuchów commandry / the Tuchola commandry and the Kingdom of Poland. In source no. 2 there is a list of arbitrators from the Pomeranian party and the Teutonic party negotiating the border between the villages of Oskowo and Siemirowice / Unieszyno. The information about informer and arbitrators may be found in source no. 3 (both the Pomeranian and Teutonic parties) and no. 4 (the Teutonic party). Each of the published descriptions is characterized by precision and plethora of topographic names. They should be used for the analysis of the problem of shaping and functioning of the border between the Duchy of Słupsk and the Monastic State of the Teutonic Order in Prussia in the context of the political and economic situation on the Pomeranian-Teutonic borderland in the Late Middle Ages.
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The article discusses the reasons and circumstances of the trip made by the famous icon painters Andrei Rublev and Daniil Cherny in 1408 to Vladimir-on-Klyazma in 1408, commissioned by the Grand Prince Vasily Dmitrievich in order to «renew» frescos of the Assumption Cathedral. The trip resulted in one of the most famous fresco ensembles of the Russian Middle Ages. In historiography, it is customary to explain the arrival of the icon painters to Vladimir by the constant concern of the Grand Prince authorities about the cultural and political «Vladimir heritage». The article suggests that a possible reason for the beginning of the works was the preparation of Vladimir and other cities on the former lands of the Grand Principality of Vladimir for their transfer to the governance of the Lithuanian Prince Svidrigailo Olgerdovich. In the summer of 1408 Svidrigailo left for Russia accompanied by the Bryansk bishop, Lithuanian Orthodox princes, boyars and a military squad. Awarding the ancient capital of the Great Principality to the new «servant» of the Grand Prince Vasily Dmitrievich Vladimir was unprecedented. Vladimir-on-Klyazma was never mentioned among the Russian territories granted to other Lithuanian princes who passed into the service of Moscow in the 14th–15th centuries. Svidrigailo Olgerdovich’s «departure» and the simultaneous commanding of the icon painters to the city to work on the paintings of the cathedral was hardly an accident. At the end of the same year, Svidrigailo Olgerdovich left his new «service», and due to that the works on frescos were suspended and never not resumed in the future.
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Wyraz naród należy do słownictwa rodzimego, mającego genezę prasłowiańską. Jego podstawę etymologiczną stanowił czasownik* na-roditi ‘urodzić’, stąd pierwotne znaczenie rzeczownika * narodъ – ‘narodzenie’ > ‘to, co się narodziło, urodziło’. To ogólne znaczenie stało się podstawą znaczeń bardziej wyspecjalizowanych, których występowanie w polszczyźnie rejestrują teksty od XIV–XV w.: ‘potomstwo, ród, rodzina, krewni’, ‘ludzie, lud, plemię’. Poczynając od XV w., rzeczownik naród zyskuje znaczenie ‘narodowość, nacja’ pod wpływem łac. natio, ~onis [por. BSEJP, BESJP]. [...]
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Based on a comprehensive study of various written sources and ethnographic materials, this paper considers some aspects of personal hygiene of nomads, who lived in the Eurasian steppes during the 13th–15th centuries, i.e., primarily in the states of Genghis Khan and his descendants. Regarding both similar living conditions and ethnocultural situation, as well as the important role of traditions in the nomadic society of Central Asia, the data of the ethnographic sources about the everyday life of nomads during the subsequent eras (in the 16th–20th centuries) were extrapolated to the nomadic society of Genghis Khan’s states. The body hygiene procedures (associated with face, hands, and head hair) were analyzed. The main personal hygiene products (combs, scissors, mirrors, cosmetics (white paint), soap, etc.) were described. It was revealed that the hygiene culture of nomads in the Eurasian steppes developed under the influence of the following objective factors: nature and climate, economic and living conditions. In this process, the faith-related factors and the worldview were also critical, mostly in Ulus and Jochi. The hygiene knowledge and practices of all nomads were generally similar, but there were some specific features associated with their ethnocultural background.
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Because this year (more precisely on August 11th) is the 565th anniversary of the transition to the eternal ones of John Hunyadi, but also because the famous ruler by state and by army of origin Romanian meant a lot to the history of Banat, I decided to draw up this modest study in his memory to be printed in this remarkable publication. John Hunyadi was one of the greatest European political and military leaders of the 15th century, standing out as the initiator and commander of the anti-Ottoman fight. He was born around 1407 as the son of Vojk, “soldier of the royal court”, son of Şerbu (an important Romanian knyaz in the Haţeg land), and Elizabeth of Marginea, descendant of lesser noblemen from Hunedoara (migrated probably into Transylvania from the Banatian district of Marginea) who had embraced Catholicism, the faith in which her children, including Hunyadi, were raised. Most of the narrative and official (diplomatic) historical sources of his time and subsequently confirmed its Romanian roots. Marco Antonio Bonfinio (Bonfini/Bonfinius), an Italian scholar, wrote in his chronicle that John Hunyadi’s father was Romanian, one of those who “inhabit the land of the Getae and the Dacians, descendants of the Roman settlers, as proved by the language they speak”. The great Italian scholar, Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, who would later become pope Pius II, wrote that John Hunyadi “whose name far outshines the others did not increase so much the glory of the Hungarians, but especially the glory of the Romanians among whom he was born”. In his times, it was known that Hunyadi “was not a Hungarian but a Romanian of a lesser nobility”. In the 19th and 20th century many Banatian scholars took a keen interest in the origin, personality and deeds of John Hunyadi. We mention here: Nicolae Stoica of Haţeg, Damaschin Bojincă, Iosif Bălan, Victor Motogna (a Banatian by adoption), Patriciu Dragalina etc. Worthy of remark is Damaschin Bojincă’s monograph about the great Christianity’s hero called The description of birth and heroic deeds of very famous and all Scurtă prezentare biografică a lui Iancu de Hunedoara 91 over Europe of the wonderful hero John Corvinus of Hunyadi. Half of this study deals with the matter of John Hunyadi’s Romanian origin. On 18 October 1409 John Hunyadi’s father was ennobled and received Hunedoara possession with surrounding villages from king Sigismund of Luxembourg (1387-1437). After having served his apprenticeship at some laymen and clergymen’s courts and even monarchs as well, John took part in the anti-Ottoman fight in the south of Hungary, leading his own detachment of 6-12 cavalrymen. Around 1428-1430 he married Elizabeth Szilágyi, a Hungarian noblewoman of high rank from Solnacul de Mijloc county (or Slavonia) whose family were supporters of Sigismund of Luxembourg. They had two children, Ladislau and Matthias (the future king of Hungary between1458-1490). With the support of his wife’s family, John entered the retinue of Sigismund (emperor 149 of Germany since 1410) and he served Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan, in his anti-Venetian campaign. In this period John Hunyadi completed his military education and training and studied the new military art of Italy from the condottieres. In 1434 he accompanied his monarch at the Council of Basel, Switzerland. In 1436-1437 he joined Sigismund of Luxembourg in his campaign in Bohemia (Czechia). Although king “de jure” Sigismund was to become king “de facto” as the country people, townspeople and lesser nobility wouldn’t acknowledge the German suzerainty. At that time, John was already leading his own detachment of 50 troopers. On 9 December 1437 Sigismund of Luxembourg died and Hunyadi went to Alba Iulia to attend the coronation of Albert of Austria (1438-1439) as king of Hungary. Then he returned to Bohemia where he spent the remainder of the year 1438, so he did not take part in the suppression of the peasant revolt in Transylvania (1437-1438). Although king Albert of Austria was acknowledge by a group of noblemen from Czechia, the Hussites were against him, preferring Casimir, the brother of the Polish king, as their sovereign. John Hunyadi and his brother were engaged in king Albert’s warfare with the Bohemians and their Polish allies. In 1438, during peace negotiations, king Albert promoted Hunyadi to Ban of Severin, a dignity that he shared with his brother. He was soon in the ascendant. On 7 March 1441 king Vladislav I rewarded him with the title of voivode of Transylvania, position retained until 1446. During this time he was also Comes of Temes and Comes of the Szekely. His sovereigns recognized his merits by granting him vast estates in Transylvania, the Banat and eastern Hungary. All these brought him great revenues, John Hunyadi being the greatest landowner in Hungary at the time. In 1445 he became Captain General of Hungary and in 1446 he was rewarded by king Vladislav I with the captaincy of the fortress of Belgrade. In June 1446 he found himself at the peak of his political career when he was elected as Regent-Governor of the kingdom of Hungary by the Diet. Supporter of the centralization of political power, on the external plan John Hunyadi consequently sought to create a system based on 92 Altarul Banatului tightening the ties between the three Romanian principalities in order to form a united anti-Ottoman front. At the same time he aimed to launch a Christian crusade to oust the Ottomans from Europe. In 1442 he defeated the Turks at Sibiu and Ialomiţa. In 1442-1443, during the famous expedition known as “the long campaign”, John Hunyadi crossed the Balkans advancing as far as Zlatita where he scored a brilliant victory over the Turks, then in 1445 obtain a new victory over them in a campaign undertaken along the Danube, but he was defeated in the battles of Varna (1444) and Kossovopolje (1448). 150 After his resounding victory against the Ottoman armies led by sultan Mohammed II (1444-1446; 1451-1481), in July 1456 in the famous Battle of Belgrade, John Hunyadi died of bubonic plague in his camp at Zemun, near Belgrade, on 11 August 1456. He is buried in the Roman Catholic Cathedral “St. Michael” of Alba Iulia. His funeral plaque was engraved with John of Capestrano’s words: “The light of the world has passed away”.
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Book-Reviews: Georg Ziaja: Lexikon des polnischen Adels im Goldenen Zeitalter 1500–1600. Ferdinand Schöningh Verlag. Paderborn 2019. 297 S., Ill., Kt. ISBN 978-3-506-79234-1. (€ 128,–.); Ders.: Lexikon der katholischen Bischöfe im Polen des Goldenen Zeitalters 1500– 1600. Ferdinand Schöningh. Paderborn 2020. 236 S., Kt. ISBN 978-3-506-70318-7. (€ 128,–.) ‒ Jacek Kordel
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The Archbishop of Esztergom (lat. Strigonium), Dionisius of Szecs, is considered a controversial figure in historical literature. In a short time, he crowned two Hungarian kings: 14 May 1440 as a faithful servant of Queen Elizabeth her three-month-old son, Ladislav the Posthumous, and 17 July 1440, apparently under pressure, also his enemy Vladislaus I. Despite the indisputable fact of the double coronation, the historians are now more cautious regarding the role of the Archbishop. As an excellent speaker and diplomat, he favored negotiations over violence and was instrumental in settling several seemingly insoluble conflicts. He also played an important role in the election of Mathias Corvinus as King of Hungary, which he eventually crowned (as the third ruler in his life). His merits in the church are also important: despite the difficult period he began to build the cathedral and archbishop’s palace in Esztergom, convened several church synods, supported monasteries and increased the importance of the Archbishop of Esztergom by achieving the title Primate of Hungarian church.
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This brief study attempts to reopen the old discussion regarding the identification of the Crăciuna citadel (fortification), which was built by Radu the Handsome, ruler of Wallachia, across the border and inside Moldavia, after his humiliating defeat at the Battle of Sochi in Wallachia against Stephen the Great, on the 7th of March 1471. The next step after establishing the location of Sochi in Wallachia, near the border with Moldavia, was the topographic identification (both in the documentation and in the field) of the place where Stephen the Great diverted the Siret river around Crăciuna citadel, in order to annihilate it strategically. This identification was done in Vulturu de Jos, located in Vrancea county, near Vadu-Roșca, on an old riverbed of the Siret, which today is named Valea Vulturului (Eagle’s Valley), located in Moldavia, across the border and in the immediate vicinity of Sochi
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The Iranian area has recently come to the agenda of Turcology research with the emergence of a new height of Dede Korkut stories. Epics, stories, proverbs and idioms that we have compiled in this rich cultural geography are of great importance for the Turkish world. The Compilation Epic that we compiled from this region was described by Ashiq Yedullah in Tabriz in 1970 as the longest verse and prose epic of the Turkish World. The general subject of the epic is the spread of the religion of Islam. In this respect, it has similarity to the Epic of Şikâri, Danişment-nâme and Battal-nama. Şikâri Epic motif structure is one of our richest epics. In addition to all the motifs seen in the book of Dede Korkut, it is possible to see the motifs encountered in the legends of Azerbaijan in this epic. Religious elements in this epic; The motif of being left in the well and being saved by the merchants, inviting the people of the places where the protagonist has visited, to Islam, making the ablution and praying before the war, bringing the Word-Good Shahada and becoming the Muslim and converting churches into mosques. In this study, we will focus on religious elements in the Epic of Şikâri.
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