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The COVID-19 pandemic, which surfaced in early 2020, has become an opportunity for theologians and philosophers to sort out several dogmatic issues. One of the tasks that were undertaken was an attempt to establish the place of the old devotional practice called spiritual communion in the religious order. Spiritual communion is usually defined as the earnest desire to receive sacramental communion, which can arouse in a believer in situations when it is not possible to receive the Eucharist physically. Most often, this desire is accompanied by appropriate prayer. However, theologians are not unanimous about the effectiveness of spiritual communion: some argue that spiritual communion is as effective as sacramental communion, while others claim that the effectiveness of spiritual communion cannot be equated with that of sacramental communion. The aim of this study is to justify the thesis that sacramental communion always surpasses spiritual communion in terms of effectiveness. This can be supported by statements of Thomas Aquinas and the Council of Trent, as well as a philosophical analysis of the fact of incarnation that God made in order to enter into a physical, not just spiritual, community with humans.
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Islam, as one of the most popular religions in the world, presents its teachings mainly in the following two parts: 1. Beliefs and beliefs; 2. Deeds and judgments. The section on deeds or rulings in Islam is presented under the title "Rules of Sharia". There are hundreds and thousands of rules and regulations in various fields. The collection of Shari'ah rules of Islam is studied on the basis of special rules and principles and is mostly derived from the Qur'an and Sunnah (hadiths), which are considered to be the main sources of this religion. Of course, there are those who refer to other principles and sources ... Among the provisions of the Shari'ah, there are a number of rulings (fatwas) that still need to be studied in detail. One of them is the issue of purity of people who are outside the religion of Islam. Unfortunately, due to the lack of serious and accurate research on the origins of Islam, for centuries, some religious scholars have issued special fatwas regarding the fact that non-Muslims are considered unclean and that their bodies are protected from sweat and youth. This is not only one of the most serious blows to the traditions of tolerance and multiculturalism, but also an issue that can overshadow the honor and dignity of the people. In fact, there may be a number of fundamental reasons or reasons for such a view, one of which is that, from the Qur'an's point of view, the theory of religious pluralism is not acceptable, and the emergence of Islam it may be a declaration that all existing religions are unreliable. Because when one considers one's religion to be the most superior and invincible, an insulting view of members of other religions is engraved in history as one of the eternal problems in the history of religions. Here, this ruling (fatwa) has been studied from the point of view of the main sources of Islam and appropriate results have been obtained.
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There is a common belief, both in Poland and Slovakia, that clergy live in prosperity. Not every source of parish income is also a source of income for the clergy. The position of the Catholic Church on the methods of obtaining church goods was set out in the teaching of the Second Vatican Council and in Book V of the Code of Canon Law of 1983. In Poland, the basis for the salaries of priests serving in parishes are mass offerings (donation for the mass intention), baptism offerings, banns of marriage offerings, weddings and funerals (so-called iura stolae), pastoral visit offerings and offerings for prayers for the dead. Their division varies between dioceses. On the other hand, the main source of financing for the Catholic Church in the Slovak Republic are funds received from the state budget. The aim of this article is to compare the system of supporting clergy of the Catholic Church in two countries of the Visegrad group – Poland and Slovakia.
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This article asks how COVID-19 has shaped the Estonian churches, how it might affect their future development and what implications has it brought for the planting of new free churches. Hypermodern times are changing society in its perception of spirituality and maturity of faith. History of Christianity – including the history of Estonian free church movement– shows how vital are discipleship and fellowship within churches for following Jesus and embodying missional relationships. Estonian denominational leaders have noted both strengths and weaknesses that have emerged in their churches during the COVID-19 crisis. In the future of Estonian free church planting both authentic relationships of smaller communities of faith and digital capabilities seem to become crucial for the missionally sustainable church-life
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The article explores a Baptist approach to the relationship of ‘free’churches to society and in particular to the state. It describes ‘monopoly religion’ as the attempt to establish one approach as the uniform religion of a society. In the West this took the form of ‘Christendom’. A divergent understanding arose with the Anabaptist and Baptist movements of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. This denied the right of rulers to override the religious conscience in its duties to God. From 1644 his instinctive approach found intellectual expression through figures such as Roger Williams and John Milton laying the foundations for a political ideology of religious freedom. Although this took root only slowly it has eventually achieved dominance in a range of liberal democracies.
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The main claim of this article is that Salafi religious understandings lead to many negative psychological and sociological (psycho-social) consequences. At the same time, these elements are not only related to Salafism and Salafi groups, but also they are generally related to the belief elements of most Muslim individuals and groups. In this context the purpose of article is to reveal the mutually affected psycho-social negative features that have emerged in the past and present and may also come to light in the future, even though there are many different features that characterize Salafi thought. In the article, research and evaluation are made through an interdisciplinary method. In this framework, basic informations and discussion topics that will provide comprehension of Salafi understandings of religion of different disciplines are discussed in relation to the research areas of the Sociology of Religion. Firstly, the characteristics and basic attitudes of Salafi religious conceptions that may have negative psycho-social consequences are described, afterwards these attitudes are listed separately and the negative effects they can cause are explained within successive effect framework by presenting cause-and-effect relationship. As a result of the research, it has been seen that the characteristics of Salafi understandings of religion that may have negative consequences are as follows: 1-Disregard of the socio-cultural anthropological approach 2-A constant understanding of faith and religion at the basic level 3-Apparent/literal approach 4-Unity in faith and actions 5-The thought that reason cannot comprehend religious issues 6-The idea that the Qur'an is not created 7-Constructing daily life through religious texts 8-Being limited to the Golden Age 9-The blessing of the language 10-Standing against history and tradition 11-Looking for the solutions to post/modern problems through past 12-Opposition to bid‘ah (innovation) 13-The only truth discourse 14-Absolutisation of religious knowledge 15-Standing against cultural construction 16-Sanctifying religious authorities 17-Mission of tabligh (reaching out) 18-‘Ummah understanding 19-Dār Al-Harb (abode of war) discourse 20-Patriarchal religious discourse 21-Traditional education methods. When these features are analyzed in detail, it is understood that these approaches have factors that may negatively affect individuals and groups in many ways. However, Salafism is approached mostly as a negative structure by considering radical/jihadist Salafi movements in researches prevent us from seeing what kind of serious negative consequences of these understandings of religion have caused in the history of Islam and today, and what kind of problems they may cause in the future. Therefore, it is an important result that these understandings of religion should be carefully examined by believers.
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For the reason that there were acts of leaving the community of the Church there arose a need for working out the legislative norms to be followed and obeyed to make such a decision valid and binding with regard to juridic consequences. In 2006 such norms were issued by the Papal Council for the Legislative Texts, and next, the particular Churches were obliged to worked out their own norms regarding that issue. In the Church in Poland such rules derive from 2008, and further, they were amended in 2015. Hence, the below study show the currently applicable norm for formal act of defection from the Church, and at the same, it takes into consideration the juridic aspects of such norms.
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I would like to challenge our general understanding of the ’free market’ on the basis of the ambiguity of the term ‘free’. The ambiguity stems from understanding the freedom of the market exclusively in terms of freedom from unnecessary regulations or restrictions imposed by the government, rather than the freedom of the person involved in economic transactions. This latter meaning of freedom is incomparably more fundamental than the first one that is usually affirmed. My main contention is the following: Christian virtues – and especially those affirmed by St. Benedict – contribute to a “free market” precisely by showing us new aspects of freedom. These features of liberty are not so much perceived as abstract forms by the reflective mind but are rather existentially lived through the embodied praxis of a Christian community. After a short analysis of the last pages of MacIntyre’s After virtue, I show the radical novelty in a Christian understanding of virtues. Relying on some of David Bentley Hart’s intuitions I point out four essential aspects in which market imposes its own principles and structure on human freedom. If the market is a kind of imposed metaphysics, how must the Christian, who is called to nothing less than theosis, show resistance to the market forces by, instead, growing in Christian virtues?
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The article noting the phenomenon of holy masses broadcast on Polish Radio presents missionary teaching. First it introduces the persons of bishops and priests proclaiming the word of God.The presented analysis shows that homilies delivered on Polish Radio during Holy Masses transmitted from the Holy Cross Church in Warsaw comprehensively and approximate the teaching on the missionary nature and tasks of the Church. They make a valuable contribution to pastoral care. These sermons devoted to missions are a great way to awaken the missionary spirit of the faithful. They teach about the missionary nature of the Church, about the tasks and role of the Church in the modern world. The authors of the homilies emphasize and remind of the shared responsibility of all members of the People of God for the Church, all humanity and missions. They make the baptized in the mission work more sensitive, inform them about the specific needs of the mission work and the possibilities of cooperation in the mission “ad gentes”. They show that despite the apparent lack of relationship, the missionary commitment concerns not only missionaries but everyone, from the youngest to the sick and suffering. A valuable aspect of the homilies is pointing to specific, practical forms of commitment to the missionary work of the Church. Often the strong advantage of the proclaimed word is that its author himself experienced the hardship and beauty of missionary work as well as solidarity and help shown to him. Thanks to this, the Holy Cross Church in Warsaw has become an important place from which the call resounds that the Church in Poland should be still in a state of mission.
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This article aims to shed some light on how spiritual friendship (the deepest form of friendship that necessarily implies contemplation) is a prerequisite of ‘social friendship’ – the key to any good politics. I elucidate two essential aspects of this relationship between friendship and politics: disposition (or, attitude) and reflection in terms of contemplation. The required attitude – a deeper concept than disposition – for any friendship is benevolence. I argue, along with Pfänder, that there are different kinds and grades of dispositions that can be distinguished from attitudes. Furthermore, I point out (with reference to Scheler’s analysis) that a fundamental attitude (‘Grundgesinnung’) exists, and I describe the nature of the possibilities inherent to it. In the second part, I introduce the notion of ‘Besinnung’ with its three variations of reflection, meditation and contemplation. Finally, I argue that there is an essential relationship between the highest form of benevolence (as the manifestation of the positive fundamental attitude) and the highest form of the contemplation of friendship. Penetrating into these two phenomena both intellectually and existentially, one might better understand the gift of friendship. In friendship, the other person reveals themselves not only as this specific person, but also as a person with the utmost clarity. I argue that without these fundamental insights, one can hardly imagine any just political community.
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The aim of this article is to analyze Raja Halwani’s concept of “romantic love.” Her main thesis is that romantic love is an emotion. The author of the article tries to look at the concept from the perspective of the social sciences, juxtaposing it with selected notions of romantic love from the border of sociology, social philosophy, and theology. He considers that the approach according to which romantic love is presented as an emotional state may be interesting not only for the psychologist but also for the philosopher or sociologist. He points out that love as an emotion is not subject to moral judgments. Finally, he concludes that when considering romantic love from a sociological point of view, its emotional basis should not be overlooked, but closing the phenomenon in the purely emotional sphere seems to be a methodological error.
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In recent years, there has been an increased interest in research into religiosity of different generations, especially Millenials. In this paper, we will examine the relationship of Generation Z to religion. As the most numerous population, characterised by insecurity and concern for the socio-economic and security aspects of the world in which we live, by digital mediation and socialisation accompanied by the availability of the Internet, by racial and ethnic diversity, and by supporting individual freedom and sexual amorphousness, they are the first post-Christian generation as well, shaping the world like no other generation to this day. Given the aforementioned, the subject of our research is the religious and spiritual values that this generation cultivates. The paper uses secondary data derived from the Pew Research Center research, as well as studies based on qualitative and quantitative research comparing different generation cohorts. The paper consists of three parts, with the first part presenting the sociological characteristics of Generation Z, the second one explaining the popular concepts of modern religiosity together with the respective pieces of criticism, and the final one observing Generation Z as representatives of the post-Christian world. Considering the overall social transformation that accompanies this generation, in conclusion we find that Generation Z treats religion and elements of religion as trends, that there is a search for ‘religious shortcuts’, i.e. that it channels its spirituality through rituals and ceremonies that meet their current needs and are not necessarily related to one religion.
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At present, there is no societally relevant political newspaper in Germany that is based on a Christian worldview. The Rheinischer Merkur, founded in 1946 shortly after the end of the Second World War and shut down by the German Bishops’ Conference in 2010, was a newspaper of this kind. It went beyond the Christian milieu in the fulfilment of its mission in the public arena. The closure of the Rheinischer Merkur obscures even today the decisive role it played in the elaboration of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany and the substantial quality of the paper. This essay sketches the history of the Rheinischer Merkur and its self-understanding, as well as its decline, locating these in the context of the journalistic autonomies and media-ethical tensions to which every journalistic medium is subject.
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The aim of this paper is to explore a few factors that contribute to the tendency towards secularization in the evangelical churches in Central and Eastern Europe. It further suggests theological remedies to address the causes of secularization. The thesis of this paper is that there are three causes for the tendency towards secularization. First is the secularization of theological education, second is the crisis of ecclesial identity, and third is the secularization of leaders hip. The first proposal of this paper is that the remedy for the secularization of theological education is redefining theology as communion, theological education as transformation, and theological formation as discipleship. Second, the remedy for the crisis of ecclesial identity that leads to negative identity markers is the replacement of the external conformation model of Christian life (which leads to social isolation, subculturality, and spiritual abuse) with the internal transformation model, which leads to a healthy spirituality and a meaningful theology of mission. Third and finally, the remedy for the secularization of leadership is the rediscovery of the kenotic model of Christian life and ministry.
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In the context of research into the relationship between secularism and multiculturalism in contemporary India, this paper points to their specific interrelatedness and the distinctive Indian approach to secularism through the idea of a principled distance as a way to adjust to religious pluralism that has a close affinity with multiculturalism. Contrary to opinions that secularism is alien to the Indian civilisation, by a selection of instances through Indian history, the paper illustrates the broader meaning of “Indian” religious and secular thinking and also points to the significance of interaction among various religious cultures and subcultures, particularly between Hinduism and Islam/Sufism. However, the paper focuses on the analysis of Indian constitutional secularism and legally warranted multiculturalism. Debates on multiculturalism follow two distinct directions: the first examines multiculturalism as a state policy in the form of federalisation of its political system, whereas the second is concerned with the meaning of multiculturalism and its implications for the issues of individual and group rights, culture, religion, and secularism. It also touches upon the influence of the British colonial rule on the shaping of interreligious relations in independent India. The last section questions the ascendancy of Hindu nationalism, particularly in view of the rise to power of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in 2014, its appropriation of the new “idea” of India, especially the Hindu nationalist narrative, which endangers India’s official ideology of secularism, as well as the position of the minorities, in particular of the Muslim minority.The article is divided into seven sections. The Introduction outlines, in general, the main distinction between secularism and multiculturalism and their relationship, referring to the two principal approaches to secularism: (1) neutrality between different religions, and (2) prohibition of religious associations in state activities. Indian secularism tends to emphasise neutrality in particular rather than prohibition in general.The second section, Traces of the Indian Secular Thought through History, examines the view, particularly pervasive among Hindutva supporters, that secularism is alien to the Indian civilisation from the perspectives of history and philosophy, which both provide evidence that “the constituents of secularism which make up the concept are not alien to Indian thought” (Thapar, 2013: 4). In this context, the most evoked name in connection with religious tolerance is that of Ashoka Maurya, who in his edicts called not only for the co-existence of all religious sects but also for equal respect for those who represented them. Many centuries later, Moghul Emperor Akbar supported dialogue across adherents of different religions, including atheists. He laid the formal foundations of a secular legal structure and religious neutrality of the state. The paper here also points to the significance of interaction among various religious cultures and subcultures, the more so between Hinduism and Islam/Sufism. It focuses on extending the meaning of “Indian” religion in the sense that it includes multiple religions, such as Brahmanism, Buddhism, Jainism, Bhakti, Shakta, Islam/ Sufism, Guru-Pir tradition, which, but for Brahmanism, challenge orthodoxy by giving greater weight to social ethics rather than to prescriptive religious texts.The third section, Multiculturalism in Indian Context, refers to the Indian legally warranted multiculturalism and relating debates followed by two distinct directions. The first examines multiculturalism as a state policy in the form of federalisation of its political system; a process which involves the political accommodation of ethnic identities, which remains the most effective method of management and resolution of conflicts. The second direction is concerned with the meaning of multiculturalism and its implications for the issues of individual and group rights, culture, religion, secularism. According to Rajeev Bhargava (1999: 35, 2007), cultural particularity might undermine the “common foundation for a viable society”, and might also lessen individual freedom, thus invalidating the values of liberal democracy. From there follows the question of constitutional protection of personal laws of religious communities, which is, in a way, in collision with the primary secular identity, that of a citizen (Thapar, 2010, 2013).The fourth section, Characteristics of Indian Secularism, analyses in some detail the Articles of the Indian Constitution concerned with the basic understanding of secularism, i.e., that religion must be separated from the state “for the sake of religious liberty and equality of citizenship.” The analysis indicates that, while some Articles (Indian Constitution, Articles 25–26) depart from the mainstream western secularism, others are close to the Western liberal leanings, like those stipulating that the state will have no official religion (constitutional amendment 42) or that no religious instruction will be allowed in educational institutions maintained wholly out of state funds, as well as that no person attending any educational institution receiving financial aid from state funds shall be required to take part in compulsory attendance at religious instruction or worship (Articles 27–28/1/). But, more specifically, the idea of a principled distance from religious pluralism points to India’s highly contextual, thus distinctively Indian, version of secularism.The fifth section, The Question of Indian Identity, argues that, with the inauguration of democracy in India, multiculturalism was adopted as a policy of recognising and respecting diversity, guaranteeing the protection and rights of minorities and positive discrimination for the historically marginalised, and emphasising intergroup equality, while leaving the issue of intragroup equality somewhat aside.In the last section, Challenges of Hindu Nationalistic Ideology, the author points to some manifestations of the current ascendency of Hindu nationalism, particularly resulting from the Bharatiya Janata Party coming to power in 2014, such as the increasing identification of state leaders with Hindu cultural symbols and, at the same time, decreasing official support for the public festivals of minorities, Mus lims and Christians in the first place. According to Hindu nationalists, most Muslims and Christians are converts from Hinduism and should therefore recognise the precedence of the Hindu culture in India. Anti-Muslim prejudice in India stems not from the ideas of their racial or cultural differences but, above all, from questioning their loyalty to India. Here emerges the question of the “secular nationalism” of the Congress Party as opposed to the “Hindu nationalism” of the Bharatiya Janata Party, which insists on Hinduism as the essential token of the Indian national identity, implying cultural and political pre-eminence of Hindus in India.The Conclusion summarises some of the main points regarding the relationship between secularism and multiculturalism in the Indian context, indicating that despite the present challenges that Hindu nationalism poses to both, “…the Indian experience suggests that some form of moderate secularism will continue to remain necessary as a state framework to check the advance of religious majoritarianism” (Bajpai, 2017: 224). The author assumes that the article offers some constructive avenues for future studies on secularism and multiculturalism, which should not only provide further insights into the Indian case but also enhance the understanding of the varieties of secular trajectories worldwide, as well as their implications for democracy.
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It is a derivative of the opening in the second half of the 20th century of the Churches associated in the World Council of Churches and the Roman Catholic Church to those who represent a faith other than Christian (and consequently also to their cultures), and was preceded by religious and interfaith dialogue. It was conducted between representatives of the Churches and with representatives of other religions. This type of pastoral care takes into account the realities of the ever-changing world and the increasing demands placed on the pastor by the contemporary man - often migrating from place to place, lost, overworked, terrified, looking for the meaning of life and salvation. The following study presents the development of interreligious and intercultural pastoral care (its origins in the life and work of Jesus of Nazareth), which are inspired by ethnology, psychology, and religious dialogue. It is also observation of the forms and the tools which are uses in this type of pastoral care. The author based the exemplification part of the article on facts from his own pastoral activity in the parish, thus illustrating the potential of the title pastoral ministry.
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Secularity is in an essential understanding of contemporary meaning related to modernity. It is not exhausted in its attitude towards religion, but in its understanding of freedom as a principle of existence. Understanding the relationship between secularity and modernity, that is, establishing the modern meaning of secularity, should be sought through the relationship to tradition, primarily philosophical tradition. Secularity in its fundamental meaning is not an ideological platform, but the result of an understanding of tradition in relation to the modern world.
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Knowledge of the conditions of effective communication is very important. Contemporary media coverage has its own features and proposals, for example dangerous as well as most positive. Its creators and recipients largely create and shape these features and proposals. At the same time, there is a process of learning from the media how to contact. The goodness is indicated as a condition for effective communication: why and how? This issue will be presented on the basis of teaching about the media of Popes John Paul II, Benedict XVI and Francis, whose pontificates fall during the time of significant changes when it comes to mass media.
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