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The Arab Spring, which was initiated by the events taking place at the end of 2010 in Tunisia, gripped much of the Middle East, including Iran. However, demonstration of support for revolutionaries in Tunisia and Egypt, which began in Iran in February 2011 were doomed from the start to failure. On the one hand, the regime had taken all possible measures to prevent development of similar scenario, as in Tunisia and Egypt. On the other hand, the conflict in the conservative camp, between the supreme leader, Ali Khamenei and the president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad attracted growing attention of the Iranian public. The article aims to analyze the causes of the conflict in the conservative camp, to characterize the rival political groups and will attempt to answer the question about possible consequences of this conflict, not only for the reformists, but for the Iranian political system, as a whole. As the results of elections to the 9th Majles show, Ali Khamenei continues to have the greatest impact on the balance of power in the Islamic Republic, but taking into account the growing influence of the Revolutionary Guard Corps, they may become much greater threat for Supreme Leader than the reformists.
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In his recent short essay “Concerning the European Constitution“ Jürgen Habermas, who is considered by his followers to be the most popular philosopher the world over, has examined thecurrent crisis in Europe and outlined how in his view it can be overcome. Instead of the old argument for Europe’s integration, that it would preclude wars between the European nations, Habermas prefers a new defence. According to him, the European Union can be understood as “a crucial step forward towards a politically organized world community” (p. 39). But whether that “narrative”, as he calls it, will really help to mobilize the European feelings of national citizens can quite rightly be questioned. What can be considered, according to the author of this text, to be Habermas’ achievement in dealing with the European Union, is his conclusion that it represents the first example of a “division of sovereignty” being practiced (p. 49 and 69); that, secondly, it enables a legal framework to be established for the foreign and defence policy of the EU member states (p. 57); and, thirdly, that the chance now exists to found, in the time to come, a “world community” (p. 82), which would be more effective than the Geneva “League of Nations” and the New York “United Nations Organization”. By the way, in Habermas’ concept the nation states rather surprisingly play an important and decisive role (p. 72).
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The purpose of this article is to present current state and situation, which is in the east of Ukraine, as well as selected problems faced by the people of Donbass. In April 2014 years in the circuits of Donetsk and Lugansk, Ukraine began hybrid war. Kiev has introduced partial blockage of territories rebellion. Stopped working all the infrastructure necessary for life: shopping, hospitals, banks and transport, water supply, heating. Lock expanded areas poverty and hunger. Arose groups of people who are living only with the help of charity. Socially excluded. People who for various reasons are there, they are struggling for survival today. Their most important aim is to survive: getting food, shelter against accidental missile, fear for relatives. People suffer because they do not want to wander around refugee centers, they are worried that in a new place, they will not find work.
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The article is devoted to the Polish contribution to the building of US Army from the War of Independence to the Civil War. The author focuses especially on the later as it was the largest armed conflict in the US. Having explained the origins and motivations of the individual immigrant groups who decided to join the Union or the Confederation, the author attempts ascertaining their actual contribution to the war of 1861–1865. The problem with defining the actual number of soldiers of Polish origin fighting on both sides is highlighted, as the number is frequently strongly understated even by Polish historians. Furthermore, the article is an essay in showing that wherever they fought, Polish soldiers – although bereft of fatherland – were devoted to the ideal of fighting for freedom, even despite numerous proofs of intolerance and cases of negative bias of American society they encountered.
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