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Fotoreportaż. Samogon - używka polskiego ludu - w Polsce komunistycznej może służyć społeczeńswu tylko z nadania władzy. Jej funkcjonariusze gorliwie tropią i niszczą produkcję niekoncesjonowaną.
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Zakłady Adlera w centrum Frankfurtu nad Menem przez kilka ostatnich miesięcy II wojny stają się miejscem gehenny dla wielu powstańców warszawskich. Ich los i w Niemczech, i w Polsce wciąż pozostaje nieznany.
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This article is devoted to the study of making technology and variations of chemical composition of metal of gold items from the rich female burial Mukhino-2 on the Upper Don (the first half of the 5th century), which contains North-Pontic dress elements. All investigated items were made of gold-silver film (or foil), where precious metals are connected to each other by the diffusion method. The closest parallels to this technique we see in Bosporan numismatic materials — on the surface of individual issues of stators of Sauromates IV and Thothorses (Fophors) (4th c. AD). We assume that this manufacturing technique was used in late-antiquity Bosporan jewelry workshops. The obtained data about the manufacturing method of gold items confirm the previously stated assumptions about the connection of the female garment from the “princely” burial Mukhino-2 with the North-Pontic zone. It seems that there must be many more gold items of this period, manufactured by using this technique, and that this technique could be widely spread.
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An attempt is made in the article to examine the dynamics of cultural development dated to the beginning of the Copper and Early Bronze Age in the Northern Caucasus (second half of 5th — first half of 4th millennia BC). This period in the Near East archaeological literature is designated as the “Post-Ubeid period” and the beginning of the Uruk period. In the first part of the article the cultural-chronological situation is analyzed which is related to the radiocarbon dating of main archaeological sites in the Near East and their relation to those of the North Caucasus. Further, the author examines some questions are examined connected to the dynamics of cultural evolution in the Ciscaucasia just before the Maykop period and characterizes peculiarities of spatial and chronological localization of typological variants within the Maykop-Novosvobodnaya cultural community. He also discusses general characteristics of the metal production, military affairs, cults and beliefs, as well as emergence of barrow funerary rite in the North Caucasus region.
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The paper deals with the products of the Levallois convergent unidirectional technology, namely the points with the Y-arete pattern, coming from the Palaeolithic sites of Siberia and Central Asia. The unidirectional Levallois points appear to be indicative of the presence of a particular specialized technology. Three distribution areas of the typical Levallois unidirectional convergent knapping can be singled out: the Rusian Altai; the Middle Yenisei region, and Central and Northern Mongolia. Тhe earliest assemblages containing the products associated with the typical Levallois unidirectional convergent flaking can be found in the territory of the Altai Mountains among the Middle Palaeolithic industries. They can be dated to MIS-5 a–d. The most representative and well developed variant of this technology can be seen in the industries of the late stage of the Middle Palaeolithic of Altai, dated to MIS-4 and the beginning of MIS-3. The latest evidence of the use of the Levallois unidirectional convergent method in the Altai Mountains is found in the industries that existed 35 000—43 000 years BP. As to the regions peripheral to central area where the Levallois unidirectional convergent method was spread, probably not a single industry containing typical and atypical Levallois points can be reliably dated to the period earlier than 33 000—35 000 years BP; while in Mongolia (Chikhen agui) the latest of them seem to have survived up to ca. 27 000 years BP and 29 000 years BP in South-Western foothills of Kazakhstan Altai (Bystrukha-2).
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The name of Rome was always a great mystery. Through this taxonomic study of Greek and Latin language, Enrique Cabrejas gives us the keys and unpublished answers to understand the etymology of the name. For thousands of years never came to suspect, including about the founder Romulus the reasons for the name and of his brother Remus, plus the unknown place name of the Lazio of the Italian peninsula which housed the foundation of ancient Rome.
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In the Museum of Tata there is an unpublished Roman sarcophagus. Because of the hardly legible inscription it has been unpublished for decades. The sarcophagus was erected by a former beneficiarius to his wife and daughter. The structure of the inscription is very unusual with two clauses because the veteran had bought the sarcophagus when his wife was still alive, later he together with his children buried them both into the sarcophagus. Because of the damaged part two restoration possibilities have been proposed. The sarcophagus was made in a local workshop of Brigetio. The inscription can be dated to the middle of the 3rd century but before the reform of Gallienus in the 260s, as still a senatorial legatus legionis was mentioned.
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Following the topic of the previous paper (HOLL 2005a), we discuss questions of methodology – in this paper focusing on archaeological dating, considering possible sources of error, and critical use of the results. The most important, primary method is stratigraphy, which could establish the relative dating of the finds. Stratigraphical protocols should be followed through the excavations, and observations should be documented properly, as this is the cornerstone of authenticity, and thus one of the main responsibilities of the excavator. Critical analysis of style might be helpful for some archaeological material, especially for finding analogies. It helps with the material with artistic qualities – goldsmith’s work, ornamental pottery, stove tiles, architectural carved stones – too: in recognising workshops, or establishing dating.
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The twelve known to the authors coins of Ilias I (1432-1444) found in Low Dnieper region feature some images which are very unusual for Moldavian coinage, particularly, two united horseshoes and a riding horseman. A study of these images suggested parallels among coin issues of Polish and Lithuanian rulers. According to some written accounts, Ilias I used to possess the neighboring Little Podolje for some time, which is where he appears to have issued his iconographically untypical coins.
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In present work investigating problem of early appearance tin bronze, which revealing in archaeological excavations from monuments of Caucasus, Iran and Turkey. The problem of the origins of tin has long remained the subject of much debates. Those problem has been investigated by I.R.Selimkhanov, the study of historical and geological sources of the old world’s mains of tin deposits. On the basis of his research he considered the potential role of Southeast Asian tin for the ancient bronze metallurgy of the old world. Aim of this investigation is analytical study of old tin bronze wares and establishment place and date of early appearance tin bronze. Results of analysis some the oldest sample tin bronze wares were shown in lower following table. Analytical results shows, the oldest samples, which contains tin appearance in Iran and in Balkan dated IV millennium BC. In Near East in the middle IV millennium BC. J.R. Partington considered, that Sumerians know bronze the time of dated 3500 BC, but they come to Mesopotamia from the Far East. It is possible Sumerian metallurgy taken that trade -4000 BC. from the another tribes, which known, that possibility early.Tin bronze appearance in Caucase some artifacts, in a copper-arsenic-tin alloys, dated 3000-2500 years BC. It is hook with 0,99 % tin, 1,5 % arsenic and 2,4 % nickel was excavated by I.G.Narimanov from the site of Babadervish in the Kazah area of Azerbaijan. I.R.Selimkhanov considered this artifact as an import, because it contain 2,4 % nickel, as there are no copper-nickel ore deposits in Caucasus. But there are ophiolit ores on the territory of Azerbaijan, which containing sometimes 5 % NiO. Therefore author considered, that artifacts may be from the local ores.The earliest tin-bronze dating to the fourth millennium BC is recorded in Iran at Sialk and Susa. Tin bronze artifacts of the third millennium BC is discovered at various sites, including Tepe Yahya, for example the dagger whith 3,0 % tin, 1,1 % arsenic.Tin bronze appearance in Dagestan and North Caucase in some artifacts dated end of the third millennium BC.In the first half of the second millennium BC a number of tin bronze artifacts appearance in Georgia and Osetia. Tin became one of the major copper alloying during the first half of second millennium BC. Tin is often present in these artifacts together with varying combinations of lead, arsenic, antimoly and in some cases of zinc.On the basic of our research and informations in geological literature about deposits tin in the Middle Asia (Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan) and also around city Meshed in North –East Iran, where there are revealing the early meanings. Therefore thouse are the nearly places of tin, which came to Caucasus and also to Near East from the Iran.
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The paper is a generalization of diverse and usually brief notes about the Lower Danube region with the town of Chilia as its center, which was the most important region in medieval Moldavia under Stephan the Great. Records left by Moldavian and foreign writers elucidate the outstanding role of this territory as a fishery area, which preserved this function even after occupation by Sultan Bayazid II in 1484. Highly appreciated fish and caviar from Chilia were supplied to many countries: Wallachia, Transylvania, Hungary, Poland. As the biggest international port, Chilia was supplying bread, honey, wax, wool and linen from the Moldavian hinterland to the states in the Black Sea basin, especially to Italian colonies. Manufactured products were transiting through this center from West to East, while spicery was flowing backward. The researcher demonstrates strategic importance of forts of the same name placed in the delta – the Old Chilia on the right bank of the Danube’s northern branch and the New Chilia built by Stephan the Great on the other bank. Under the increasing military pressure of the Ottomans, the ruler himself called the Moldavian Chilia with Belgorod on the Dniester “a wall for Hungary and Poland” in 1477.
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The burial by the village of Nedelkovo is situated between the rivers Dniester and Southern Bug. This area is poorly investigated that is why the excavations of the burial are very important. Mounds 3,5,9 from this burial are referred to the Scythian times. A characteristic detail of the funeral rite consists in a grave pit of a rectangular shape with the long side oriented from West to East. The material is represented by the arrow-heads and spear-heads, by a bronze mirror, knives, Greek ceramics, glass beads. Basing mostly on the ceramics, the author thinks its possible to date the Scythian burial by the village of Nedelkovo with the first half of the IV c. B.C.
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In recent years, discussions about nationalism have polarized public opinion, and strong opposition exists now on both sides of the ideological front line, i.e. between supporters and opponents of nationalistic attitudes. Many public figures have appealed to a more balanced viewpoint, stating that the current confrontation is somewhat artificial and motivated by psychological rather than political reasons. The question of how to give meaning to nationalism in 21st century Estonia remains nevertheless unanswered. In the following essay I will search for possible answers from recent Estonian history, when nationalism was a more organic part of public discourse. I will examine selected writings from the history of Estonian nationalism, i.e. from “Valik II. Artikleid eestluse ajaloost”, which was put together by Toomas Haug in 1988. The collection includes passages from authors such as Villem Reiman, Juhan Luiga, Eduard Laaman, Johan Kõpp, Oskar Loorits, Uku Masing, Hans Kruus, Karl Ast-Rumor and Ants Oras, from 1901 to 1956. I take a theoretical approach to the ideas represented in the texts, indicating their historical background and interconnectedness. The dominating aspects are language, Finno-Ugrism and historicism.
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The title shows the possibilities of using theoretical approaches to photography as a historical source and points out that the use of photography in the Slovak and Czech historical science is in contrast to the Anglo-American or German environment at the edge of interest. Author deals with the iconographic method and the semiotic approach. The iconographic method has established itself primarily in the history of art. Its analytical principle consists of a description of the displayed objects, their relationships and explanations of the discovered contingency. The semiotic approach analyses photo by decomposing a photographic image (character) on a set of smaller characters (referents). The photo image is therefore perceived as a special text encoded by a specific character system that fils the role of the communication medium. These approaches are limited in Slovak and Czech historiography, in a small range of work that the author analyses.The photograph was recognized by the International Committee of Historical Sciences as a historical source in the early 1930s. Despite this fact, historians have been avoiding to use it for historical research almost half of a century. We may find the reason in the previously absent methodology, the researchers focusing on the written sources did not know how to work with such a picture source. A significant turnaround in the interest of visual material occurred in the 1960s, when photography became a scope for social scientists. This attention has subsequently moved to other felds of science, including history as a consequence of research of everyday life history.The aim of this study is to introduce the theoretical approaches for using photography as a cultural and historical source. The first part deals with an iconographic method and a semiotic approach. The second part of the paper focuses on the positioning of photography as a historical source in Slovak historiography, pointing to the fact that its use in Slovak historical science is still on the periphery, unlike in the Anglo-American or German environment.Criticism of the source is an important step before its analysis. Concerning image sources, photography is a special phenomenon, because reality is not displayed on the basis of analogies but as its reflection. Additionally, although we are aware of its ambiguity, we tend to approach it as a piece of evidence illustrating one objective truth. The subject of criticism is to discover not only the authenticity of the source, circumstances, the place and the time of its origin, but also information about the photographer’s personality, the origins of the source and the factors influencing its content. Using the criticism of the source we may judge whether it is a genuine source or a fake.The iconographic method was originally introduced in the history of art for analysis and interpretation of paintings, and later specifically adapted for interpretation of photographs. The analysis consists of three levels. The first is a pre-iconographic interpretation, which consists of the marking of individual objects and events. The second level is an iconographic analysis that assigns importance to each subject. It is based on professional artistic and historical knowledge and knowledge of contemporary realities. The last level is an iconological interpretation of the inner meaning of the work of art. At this level, images become a useful testimony for cultural historians. An important prerequisite for proper iconographic image analysis is the expert knowledge of the researcher from the selected period. Researchers often need to use other, e.g. written sources such as literary sources. This method has been criticized for its overly intuitive, speculative nature and indifference to the social context.The semiotic method is one of the youngest but most important approaches to analysis of photograph. It is characterized by the fact that the photographic image (sign) is subject to decomposition on a set of smaller attributes (referents). This method puts more emphasis on the individual contradictions between the displayed attributes and unlike the iconographic method, draws attention to what is not captured in the photograph. Semiotic analysis consists of two phases of the analytical process. The first is a denotation that is analogous to preiconographic interpretation. The photo consists of several elements that must be named at this stage; it is important to dismantle each element of the image no matter how insignificant it may appear at first glance. The second phase is a connotation that is key for interpretation of photography because it involves the assignment of meaning to all the elements of the image described in the first phase.By connotation of the individual attributes and as consequence of the mutual interrelation between the components of the image, the photograph is taken as a whole. This method is most often criticized for not taking into account contextual information important for the analysis of the photographic image. The main difference between the iconographic and semiotic methods is that while the principle of iconography consists of a description of the objects displayed, their relationships and the explanation of the revealed contexts, the semiotic approach perceives the photographic image as a specific text encoded by a specific character system that fills the role of the communication medium. The researcher can choose the right method to find out what information he wants to learn from the photo.From the analysis of Slovak historiography, to which is devoted to the second part of the study, shows that work with photographic material as a source is marginalized in historical science. Evidence of this is the absence of relevant historical work, in this case the photograph fulfils an illustrative function. It is therefore important to present a number of works in the feld of art history, which, in terms of their interdisciplinary approach, also affect historical science. They deal mainly with the Slovak history of the twentieth century, namely the lifestyle, propaganda or visualization of a woman in visual culture. The lack of selected publications result in insufficient methodological grasp of work with the photographic source, in most cases the authors approach the analysis of photographs in an intuitive way.There has not been published a relevant historical publication that would work with photography as a historical source in the Slovak historiography, a greater interest in such a type of visual material lies in the feld of art history. The reason we may see in fact that the acquisition of art-historical methods as well as the formal and content analysis of the work belong to the study of the history of art. We see another reason in the feld of historical science itself. While the interest in photography in the Anglo-American environment is noticeable in the 1980s, Czechoslovakia was part of the USSR, and historical science developed in a completely different way under the influence of the regime, which was until the fall of the communist regime. In the nineties, Slovak historiography had to deal with the research of topics that were undesirable in previous years. The overcoming of this disability is visible only lately with the arrival of a new generation of young historians reflecting trends in Western European historiography.
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