The paper deals with the iconography of Timarchos’ ‘Dioscuri coinage’. The remarkable feature of these coins isthat this coin type is nearly to be identical to that one of Greco-Bactrian king Eukratides I. The analysis of the stylisticsshows the peculiar way of Timarchos’ iconography. Additionally, the ‘Dioscuri motif’ could have stressed the partnershipbetween two rulers.
Keywords: Parthian Iran; Qal‘eh-i Yazdigirdl Painted Stuccoes; pigmen; Egyptian blue
The use of stucco decoration on buildings has become popular in Iran from the first century but from the second century onwards stucco decorations were painted in bright colors. An important group of the Parthians Painted Stuccoes excavated in the 1965-79 and 2008 in Qal‘eh-i Yazdigird. The use of stucco decoration on buildings has become popular in Iran from the first century but from the second century onwards stucco decorations were painted in bright colors. An important group of the Parthians Painted Stuccoes excavated in the 1965-79 and 2008 in Qal‘eh-i Yazdigird. Qal'eh-i Yazdigird is a Parthian Palace Stronghold in the Zagros range of mountains in western Iran. At Qal'eh-i Yazdigird the decoration includes geometric, figural, vegetal and architectural motifs. Much of the stucco decorations were vividly painted. Some of the fragments are Polychrome. These colors consist of green, deep blues, pink, deep reds, orange, brown, purple and yellow. These were analyzed for the first time within in 2013 in Iran. The pigments red ochre and yellow ochre (identified by the presence of the main chromophores hematite and goethite), Egyptian blue and green earth (terre-verte glauconite) were found on decorated surfaces. FTIR, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Petrography methods have been used to study the characterize pigments used in the stucco decoration.
Parthian Cataphract vs. the Roman Army 53 BC-AD 224
Author(s): Ilkka Syvänne / Language(s): English
/ Issue: 6/2017
Keywords: Parthia; Parthian military; cataphracts; Roman military; tactics; Iran; Persia
This article provides a short overview of the Parthian military and it tactics, and what were the Roman responses tothat and what were the Parthian countermeasures against the Roman methods from ca. 53 BC until AD 224. It alsosuggests that when the sources claim that the Parthian monarchs fielded massive numbers of cataphract cavalry that weshould really accept what these sources state: namely that the entire Parthian cavalry force of Parthia proper was reallyencased in armour as cataphracts.
As one of the most important archaeological sites in Iran and also because of its holiness, Naqš-e Rostam wasalways being paid attention through historic periods. The earliest remain of the site goes back to Elamite period whilemany more reliefs were then added in the Achaemenian and Sasanian periods. Except for the Elamite relief which latervanished as Bahram II relief was made over it in the Sasanian period, other reliefs of Naqš-e Rostam date to Sasanianperiod. However, it seems that there is one more relief which must be dated to Elamite time. This includes a standinghuman who has raised his hand in front of his face while represented in profile facing right. The relief was firstlyintroduced by Roaf who attributed it to Narseh, the Sasanian king. This paper firstly describes the relief and secondlysuggests an alternative Elamite date as the result of comparative investigations.
Sassanian stucco decorations from the Ramavand (Barz Qawaleh) excavations in the Lorestan Province of Iran
Author(s): Gholamreza Karamian,Kaveh Farrokh / Language(s): English
/ Issue: 6/2017
Keywords: Stucco; Sassanian art; Barz Qawaleh; Lorestan; Bard Qawela; Barz-Q town; ancient Iranian art
Barz Qawaleh (also known as Bard Qawela or “Barz-Q” town) is an ancient site located in the vicinity of the villageof Ramavand in Iran, in the Kounani region of the Seymareh river basin. The ancient site should be considered as oneof the largest and most important Sassanian settlements in Lorestan, Iran. The present paper and accompanyingphotographs introduce some elements of the stucco decorations discovered at Barz Qawaleh, which constitute remarkableevidence of Sassanian art.Apart from introducing the findings from archeological, this paper offers some interpretations of the motifs anddesigns represented by the stuccos, some of which may be found also in materials from other Sassanian sites in Iran andMesopotamia
The capture Ḥaṭrā in light of military and political activities of Ardašīr I
Author(s): Katarzyna MAKSYMIUK / Language(s): English
/ Issue: 6/2017
Keywords: Sasanians; Ardašīr; Arabs; Ḥaṭrā; Roman Empire; Persian Gulf; Wars
Ḥaṭrā was a city in Upper Mesopotamia which gained strategic importance in Irano-Roman border zone in2nd century AD and managed to successfully resist the attempts of capturing by the Roman army. Power shift in Iranwhich resulted in taking over of Iranian throne by Ardašīr I (224-242) changed the situation of Ḥaṭrā. Belowconsiderations are an attempt to analyze economic, political and first of all military factors which allowed capturingthe city in 240/241 by the Sasanian army
A Brief Military History of the Later Reign of Šāpur II
Author(s): Michael Richard Jackson Bonner / Language(s): English
/ Issue: 6/2017
Keywords: Šāpur; wars; Sasanid; Huns
This is a brief history of the wars of Šāpur II from the middle of the fourth century to the death of that king in theyear 379. These conflicts represent the military operations of the Sasanid state at its height before a gradual decline underthe successor to Šāpur II.
The seals of Sasanian highest military officials, the spahbedan which contain depiction of armoured rider createconsistent iconographic group. It is possible however to distinguish five sub-groups within it, which in turn might serveas supplementary argument for their chronology or might suggest differentiation of the role of the office in time.The iconography of the spahbedan is related to 3-5th century, Roman models of imperial adventus which seems adequatefor high ranking officers who needed iconographic layout emphasizing power however not entering royal prerogative.Iconography of the sovereigns of the neighboring power suited that goal well.Stylization of the arms and armour depicted on the spahbedan seals and small size of the objects do not allow firmidentification of the types however it is clear that the more realistic tendency in depicting armament, typical for LateSasanian period and contrasting with stylized and symbolic functions of earlier official art, prevailed.
The role of religion in the foreign affairs of Sasanian Iran and the Later Roman Empire (330-630 A.D.)
Author(s): Joan Zouberi / Language(s): English
/ Issue: 6/2017
Keywords: Sasanians; Later Roman Empire; Iran; Byzantium; Christianity; Zoroastrianism
Religion’s role was prominent in the foreign relations of Byzantium and Iran. The religious element prevailsthroughout the entire struggle with Persia. The two empires were not just rivals on the battlefield. Along with the real waran ideological war was conducted between them, as both tried to convert people to their own religion. Zoroastrian Magiand Christian bishops became rivals in a war of propaganda where all means were used. When Constantine becameChristian he created a golden opportunity to unite a wholeheartedly universalist religion and its abundance of scripturalauthority and missionary impetus, with empire’s forces of political, military and economic expansion in order to createa genuine world empire. Constantine the Great was the first to use religion as a weapon to assimilate people to the RomanEmpire. The dream of global domination could become a reality through the spread of Christianity.During the Sasanian era Iran was Zoroastrianized in great extent. The doctrine of Zarthustra becamethe privileged religion and developed into a supporting pillar of Sasanian kingship. Persecutions of Christians in Iranfollowed Constantine’s the Great proclamation of being the leader of all Christians in the oikoumeni. Church historiansaccused the Zoroastrian priests called Magi in the West as responsible for tortures and death penalties againstthe Christians of Iran, while Martyrologies illustrated them as having diabolical forces and immoral practices in theirprivate lives. On the contrary secular Byzantine historians praised them as simple priests and holy men who lived in peacefollowing their own customs. Roman propaganda, through history writing, presented the shahs Yazdegerd I, Xusrō I,and Xusrō II as having converted to Christianity or at least as Christian sympathizers.The impossibility of Persian subjects existing under the rule of any Roman prelate, had decreedthe independence of the Persian Church. It was a common belief that Christian Orthodoxy was loyalty to the RomanEmperor, not to Christ, and heresy was not the display of a special variety of unchristian spirit, but an offence againstthe Roman State order. Christians of Persia were soon obliged to follow the customs of their own country. The Kingof Kings would always have the last voice, and frequently the first also in the choice of Catholicos.Byzantine historians often proceed to a religious mythmaking to justify the emperors’ policy towards the Persianrulers. During the sixth and seventh centuries religion propaganda was used in extent by both countries. In Byzantiumduring Heraclius’ reign we can trace a tendency to interpret events in terms of biblical prototypes.
Mysterious helmet from Verden and its “link” with Tibetan helmets
Author(s): Adam Kubik / Language(s): English
/ Issue: 6/2017
Keywords: Helmets; Franks; Carolingians; Avars; Central Asia; Tibet
The article discusses a helmet that was published in 1914 in Zeitschrift für Historische Waffenkunde. It was possiblyfound by a German farmer during field works near the town of Verden in Lower Saxony. The helmet which waspreviously associated with the Saxons and dated between Migration Period and the reign of Charlemagne shows clearlyrelations with far Asian constructions.Additionally I discuss here another helmet in The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which seems to be a 20th centuryreworking that imitated the Verden helmet.
The effect of water bodies and water courses on WWII warfare in the Black Sea area between 1941 and 1942
Author(s): Damian SIEBIESZUK / Language(s): English
/ Issue: 6/2017
Keywords: Black Sea; Barbarossa; military operations; bodies of water; water courses
The subject of the analysis is German and Soviet military operations in the southern sector of the eastern front,with a particular emphasis on the role of rivers and the Black Sea, during these operations. The time frame of the paperincludes the beginning of Operation Barbarossa, in June 1941, until the capture of the Crimean peninsula bythe Wehrmacht, in July 1942. The article begins with an attempt of defining concepts relevant for further studyof the issues mentioned in the title. The role of the Black Sea and its watercourses is discussed and the fact that theyplayed a very important role as defensive lines of the Red Army. The German army showed its huge military potentialwhen crossing rivers. Military operations performed at the Black Sea became an integral element of the fights inthe southern sector of the eastern front. The means of warfare involved as well as human and material losses may indicatea ruthlessness of the fighting and importance of the Black Sea theatre of war. Efforts and dedication of the both warringsides in the area of the Black Sea made history.
Sources for the history of the siege of Kamieniec Podolski in 1672
Author(s): Marek WAGNER / Language(s): English
/ Issue: 6/2017
Keywords: Kamieniec Podolski; siege; sources; Polish-Turkish war; Osman Empire
The siege of Kamieniec Podolski in August 1672 was one of the crucial military events of Polish-Turkish war of1672-1676. As a result of this event Osman Empire captured Podole together with Kamieniec Podolski and large part ofright-bank Ukraine.
Brothers Berens. A contribution to the history of Polish Lutheranism in the 17th century
Author(s): Marek WAGNER / Language(s): English
/ Issue: 7/2018
Keywords: Berens; family; the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth; Polish Lutheranism
The Lutheran family of Berens (Behrens) came from Denmark, probably had peasant or bourgeois roots, while in the 16th century its members lived in the area of Ducal Prussia. In the mid-17th century, four brothers were identified – Jan, Jakub, Jerzy, also Paweł, who served in the army of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and who, thanks to their own abilities and royal protection, reached high military levels.
Officers – Protestants in the Polish Crown army in the second half of the 17th century
Author(s): Mirosław Nagielski / Language(s): English
/ Issue: 7/2018
Keywords: Protestants; Officers; the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth; Reformation
Research on the confession of officers serving in the Polish army in the 17th century is very limited. The different confession than a Roman Catholic, serving in the army as officers as soldiers did not facilitate their promotion in the army.
Scientific Belts as a Factor of National Integration on Poland's Leaders at the time of the 19th and 20th centuries
Author(s): Jarosław Cabaj / Language(s): English
/ Issue: 7/2018
Keywords: partitions; scientific societies; scientific conventions; disintegration and integration; struggle for independence
In the second half of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century Polish scientific and professional communities took action to tighten contacts between compatriots living in the area of the three partitioning powers, and the emigration. This was a response to the unsuccessful attempts at regaining independence by using weapons. Engaging in scientific activity and building relations were supposed to replace the armed struggle. It meant that connections were established between Polish scientific societies, and first of all, conventions were organised. The initiatives taken on this forum served the development of Polish science and helped Poles to act collectively, which gradually assumed an organised form embracing the three partitions. Polish scholars also aspired to establish a common representation on the international forum. Such initiatives taken by scientific and professionalcommunities largely contributed to the restoration of independent Poland.
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