Imagining the Other: Narratives on Germans and Hungarians in Interwar History Textbooks Published in Slovakia
Imagining the Other: Narratives on Germans and Hungarians in Interwar History Textbooks Published in Slovakia

Summary/Abstract: This article seeks to explore the ways of interpreting the historical role of Germans and Hungarians in history textbooks used in primary and secondary schools in Slovakia in the interwar period, from 1918 until 1939. Historical narratives presented in school history textbooks contribute, alongside the family, media and public life, and rituals, to forming the way young people perceive the world around them. They are also one of the main tools for the social production of stereotypes of the Other. Fearing the Other is widespread in present-day Slovakia, and although the reason for this situation has been ascribed to the recent economic and current refugee crises, this paper argues that negative responses to the Other are also partially a by-product of the ethnocentric and etatist character of history education. This approach has its roots in nineteenth century historiography, reflecting the rise of nationalism and nation-building movements that characterized the contemporary social and political context. At that time, the purpose of national historiographies was to defend the historical right of each nation to establish and maintain its own state. Historians emphasized the "golden age of the nation" to prove the historical excellence and exclusiveness of the nation and concurrently identified enemies (the Other), who were often described as an obstacle in the development of one’s own nation. This perspective in history education has been present in official schooling until the present, surviving in different social and geopolitical conditions. The tense diplomatic relations Czechoslovakia had with Germany and Hungary after the end of WWI and the Paris Peace Conference and the fact that the two nations represented the most significant ethnic minorities within the borders of Czechoslovakia meant that they also became the most notable Other in historical narratives produced by Czech and Slovak historiographies of that time. The dissolution of Austria-Hungary, the establishment of Czechoslovakia, and the reconfiguration of power and ethnic relations in the newly formed state affected different levels of public life, including the educational system. Schooling had to be reorganized so that it would fit the ideological needs of the new state. A new national master narrative had to be adopted for use in the primary and secondary history education, reinforcing the Czechoslovak aspect and reinterpreting the German and Hungarian influences on the national past. The presented research is based on the study of stereotypes – generally shared impressions, images, or thoughts existing within certain groups of people about the character of a particular group of people and their representations. Stereotypes are common social phenomena; they help us in orienting ourselves in the society in which we live, and they save our time and energy when trying to establish a mental map of the world around us. In times of conflict, however, stereotyping and labeling the Other can become especially prevalent and harmful. Stereotypes presented in textbooks are examined as politically motivated efforts to present one’s nation as the exceptional one, as is discussed by social identity approach focusing on the genesis of conflict between social groups. Realistic conflict theory, which analyzes intergroup rivalry, will help in explaining stereotypes in textbooks as the outcomes of the competition between two nations. The process of creating negative stereotypes about the other nation in textbooks will be viewed in the context of periods of economic or social instability, which relates to scapegoat theory providing an explanation for the correlation between times of relative social or economic despair and prejudice towards outgroups. The article seeks to prove that the motivations behind state-produced prejudices against the members of other nations are driven by the need to present one’s own group (the nation) superior to the Other, which has been a reaction to the competition between the two groups, economic frustration or social crises. The article employs the techniques of critical discourse analysis – an interdisciplinary approach to the study of discourse that views language as a source of social practice – that is used to investigate how societal power relations are established and reinforced through public use. Narratives are constructed in textbooks to represent particular agendas of the state and using critical discourse analysis will help expose how power struggles and the interests of the dominant group have been represented in history textbooks. Textbooks and teachers’ manuals published in 1918-1938 were used as the primary sources of the presented research. The politics of textbook production at the beginning of the interwar period was marked by a serious shortage of textbooks produced in the Slovak language, and teachers themselves were encouraged by governmental officials to produce relevant teaching materials themselves. Thus, a number of different history textbooks later became available for usage at schools: textbooks written by Czech authors, the so-called Slovakized textbooks (i.e. textbooks written by the Czech authors and focusing mainly on the Czech national past, with some passages added to reflect Slovak national history), as well as textbooks written by Slovak authors. The historical roles of Germans and Hungarians in the researched textbooks were interpreted from the point of view of the political elites of the newly established state. The official state propaganda was aiming to strengthen the Czechoslovak element in the process of students’ identity formation, while vigorously promoting the image of a sinful, abusive and immoral Other – and, in that way, symbolically condemning Hungarian and German heritage. This approach stemmed both from the international relations Czechoslovakia had with Germany and Hungary in the interwar period, as well from the internal political situation, characterized by the necessity to deal with significant national minorities whose loyalties belonged to, or leaned toward neighboring national states. Hungarians and Germans were usually depicted in the textbooks as alien expanding powers usurping the territories historically belonging to Czechs and Slovaks, causing the decay of the medieval states of Czechs and Slovaks, and infiltrating themselves within the existing structures with the aim to conquer and oppress the indigenous Slavic population. The negative image of these two groups was escalated by the presentation of Austria-Hungary as a prison of non-German and non-Hungarian nationalities. Such narratives were supposed to contribute to building a positive image of Czechoslovakia as a free country, which allowed for the fair and longawaited democratic development of Czechs and Slovaks. The history of the relation between us (Czechs and Slovaks) and the Other (Germans and Hungarians) was depicted mainly as a story of a permanent conflict and rivalry, with moral and/or civilizational domination of the Czechs and Slovaks. The policies backing the production of these stereotypes stem from the contemporary general feeling of social and economic instability, which caused an increased prejudice towards outgroups, and deepened the discrimination of the national minorities, who were suspected that, if given a chance, they would undermine the sovereignty of the country leading to the territorial losses, or even state destruction. The interwar history textbooks established a strong pattern of interpreting relations between Czechs and Slovaks on the one side, and Germans and Hungarians on the other, which have survived in different regimes and different socio-political contexts. Many of the negative stereotypes have been mechanically adapted from generation to generation and have been, to some extent, an integral part of national master narratives until today.

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