Žena a pr&#225;vo. Pr&#225;vne a spoločensk&#233; postavenie žien v minulosti

Úvod

Úvod
(Introduction)

Author(s):Tünde Lengyelová
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):History, Gender Studies, History of Law, Conference Report
Page Range:5-8
No. of Pages:4
Keywords:women; law; history; conference; introduction;
Summary/Abstract:U dňoch 5. - 7. novembra 2002 sa v Kongresovom centre Slovenskej akadémie vied v Smoleniciach uskutočnila medzinárodná vedecká konferencia Žena a pravo - spoločenské postavenie žien v minulosti. Pllavnými organizátormi konferencie boli Historický ústav Slovenskej akadémie vied a sekcia pre rodové štúdie Slovenskej historickej spoločnosti pri SAV. Podujatie podporila Open Society Foundation - Nadácia otvorenej spoločnosti, ktorá poskytla grant zo svojho ženského programu. Významne prispeli aj Kultúrny inštitút Maďarskej republiky a Spoločnosť Pro História.

Život ženy - šl'achtičnej v U horsku na prelome 14. a 15. storocia

Život ženy - šl'achtičnej v U horsku na prelome 14. a 15. storocia
(Life of Noble Women in Hungary at the Turn of the 14-15th Centuries)

Author(s):Daniela Dvořáková
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Gender Studies, Middle Ages, Culture and social structure , 13th to 14th Centuries, 15th Century
Page Range:9-23
No. of Pages:15
Keywords:Hungary; women; noble women; life; middle ages; 14th century; 15th century; patriarchy;
Summary/Abstract:Je všeobecne známe, že stredoveká spoločnosť bola silne patriarchálna a v pohľade na ženy bol stredovek naozaj „dobou temna". Osobitne to platí o Uhorsku, lebo uhorské zvykové právo bolo podľa hodnotení historikov vo vzťahu k ženám jedným z najtvrdších a naj nepriateľskej sich. Poslaním žien, najmä príslušníčok vyšších spoločenských vrstiev bolo rodiť deti a udržiavať tak kontinuitu rodu. Vymretie rodu bolo jedným z najvacsich nešťastí, aké mohli panovnícke, ale aj šľachtické rody postihnúť. Ideál predstavovala žena - matka, plodná, pokorná, poslušná a večne čakajúca na manžela, kým sa vráti z boia alebo z ciest s kráľom či svojím pánom.

Žena v systéme Žilinského magdeburského práva

Žena v systéme Žilinského magdeburského práva
(Woman and the Magdeburg law system from the town of Žilina)

Author(s):Michal Bada
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Gender Studies, History of Law, Middle Ages
Page Range:24-45
No. of Pages:22
Keywords:Slovakia; Žilina; women; Magdeburg law; middle ages;
Summary/Abstract:The author uses an example of the Magdeburg law system from Žilina (ŽMP) for the analysis of the position of women in a medieval law system. Legal options and boundaries for women determined 'ways of their survival' and were reflected in 'a legal atmosphere' of the past. The medieval town offered two different 'legal statuses' for both sexes. The Magdeburg law (Sachsen spiegel) dates back to the second half of the 12th century. It spread rapidly throughout Europe during the first half of the 13th century. Žilina used the law of the town of Tesin (Flemish law), but was ordered by the king in 1369 to change to the Magdeburg law, as used in the town of Krupina. Under the influence of slovakization of Žilina the text of the Magdeburg law was translated into slovakized Czech (i.e. Czech with numerous Slovak elements). The articles that concern women, apart from those that touch upon them only marginally, can be divided into two basic groups - dealing with criminal punitive and hereditary issues. Women in ŽMP did not have full rights. They formed a special group of the urban environment and their status was formed by protective as well as some restrictive regulations. For example they could not carry an arm, during the court trial they had to have more witnesses than men and they could personally witness in court only in cases of rape and debts. On the other hand, they were protected during the pregnancy even if condemned and while taking an oath they were allowed to sit if they were not physically fit. There are detailed instructions concerning murders and lethal injuries or physical damages committed by women in ŽMP. In addition, the law deals with legal position of illegitimate children. The most numerous are articles about the family law, marital property issues and hereditary process. A woman gained by marriage the same legal position as her husband. Though the marital property was considered joint, it was the husband who was in charge of it. An interesting feature of marital property rights was the phenomenon of paternal property. It was called vater halbe (paternis in Latin) and there is a maternal equivalent for that in ŽMP - maternis. There were precise rules as to what property belonged to the wife and what to the husband and which part of it should go to her and his relatives after their death. In court hereditary cases there was an institution of a special speaker „vor munde", who had a joint role of women's (but also of children and of men over 60) defender and personal legal representative. This role was usually fulfilled by her husband, father or other male relative over 21 years of age. Records in town protocols mostly concern wealthy and prominent families and testify that the complicated ŽMP hereditary system was really used in practice. From the end of the 15th century husband and wife could use testamentary freedom and form their last wills in front of town magistrate. This right can be seen as emancipation of married couples and their liberalization from the family ties.

Podoby ženy v neskorostredovekej spoločnosti (na príklade štyroch šľachtičien z územia Nitrianskej župy)

Podoby ženy v neskorostredovekej spoločnosti (na príklade štyroch šľachtičien z územia Nitrianskej župy)
(Four Women Portraits of the Late Medieval Society)

Author(s):Ján Lukačka
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Gender Studies, Middle Ages, Health and medicine and law
Page Range:46-54
No. of Pages:9
Keywords:Slovakia; women; looks; middle ages; Nitra County; nurses;
Summary/Abstract:In the late Middle Ages, on the territory of the Nitra County there lived several prominent aristocratic families, but also a high number of middle and low nobility members, whose living standard resembled that of burghers and richer peasants. The public administration was in hands of nobility who thanks to their privileged position lived relatively well off. It must be stressed that in this period women were entirely excluded from the public sphere. However, this does mean that they had no influence on the life of society. On the basis of preserved sources we can reconstruct lives and activities of four noble women, each of them in a different, special way. Klára from Hlohovec, the wife of Mikulás Kont, like majority of women in those times married very young. She and her husband founded the hospital of Holy Ghost in Hlohovec. After the death of her husband, she decided not to marry again and over 30 years lived on estates her husband bequeathed to her. Being a patroness of the hospital, she left considerable means for the hospital in her will. It was also with the help of her generosity that the hospital has managed to survive to the present. Quite a different personality was Marta, the wife of Mikulás Forgác. When her husband fell in the war against the Ottomans, she took over the administration of the estates standing in for her young sons. She had to resist attacks of relatives who wanted to take the property from her. She addressed the ruler, King Sigismund, who issued a protective letter for her. Marta was a strict master with over-reaching demands on her subjects. In addition, she neglected the education of her six sons. In the end, the sons revolted against their mother, because she had refused to trans¬fer the estates to them after they had come of age. Once more, the king had to intervene and ordered Marta to meet the demands of her sons. Despite their previous disagreement, the sons did not turn their back to their mother and took care of her. Anna, the daughter of Ladislav from Kalna nad Hronom married Martin Czobor. After short time, husband's death terminated the marriage. The Czobor family generously left dots I property to the young widow. The family chose Martin Majteny as her second husband and despite the fact that the choice was probably determined by the size of his estates, the marriage did not lack mutual affection. Anna however, fell ill and died. Her brother used the opportunity and demanded her dowry and dotal property. There is a detailed list of her dowry in his request. The brother did not succeed, because in her last will she left all her property to her beloved husband. Anna Ludanicka, the last representative of the famous house, went down to history by means of a scandalous episode. In 1514, she ordered her subject to attack the Oponice castle that belonged to the Aponyi family. By doing so, she appropriated not only money, but also jewel, charters and expensive clothes. Nevertheless, it came to light who was the mastermind behind the burglary and after a long series of episodes, she was forced to return the stolen goods. However, in order to purge herself form the accusations she put the blame on her subjects. It is often generally remarked that women in the Middle Ages had only few rights. It seems that reality was far more complex. The basic legal frame that limited the position of women was Hungarian custom law that was created by men and mostly in favour of men. Mentions of women in the medieval sources are rare and therefore women remain somewhere in the background. This traditional depiction of the position of women is the result of the distorted picture of abovementioned medieval sources that visibly favoured men as those in power. It is only occasionally that these scant sources reveal or hint at the fact that behind the decisions of men stood their mothers or wives.

Žena ako subjekt a objekt kriminality v stredovekej Bratislave

Žena ako subjekt a objekt kriminality v stredovekej Bratislave
(Woman as a subject and object of crime in the medieval Bratislava)

Author(s):Vladimír Segeš
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Gender Studies, History of Law, Criminal Law, Middle Ages
Page Range:56-66
No. of Pages:11
Keywords:Slovakia; women; crime; criminal law; subject; object; middle ages; witches;
Summary/Abstract:Today's leading world medievalists portrayed ten profiles or social prototypes of the medieval society. They are monks, the warrior and the knight, peasants, the city dweller, the intellectual, the artist, the merchant, women and the family, the saint and the marginal man. In the chapter about women and the family, there is no mention about crime and in the chapter about the marginal man, no special attention is paid to women. This can make an impression that the two phenomena - women and the crime - were negligible and not interrelated. Based on archival sources and research findings the paper addresses some questions connected to wom en and the crime on the example of the medieval Bratislava (Pressburg, Pozsony, Presporok). In medieval Bratislava as in many other towns and in medieval society as such, judicial practice distinguished following types of crimes: 1. Crimes against people including homicides, murders and grievous bodily harm 2. Assaults, the most frequent being rape and robbery, 3. Crimes against morality and against the institution of marriage (adultery, incest, sodomy), but including also hazardous games, 4. Crimes against one's honour (slanders and insults), resistance to authorities or a lack of loyalty (lese-majeste) and 5. Crimes against property, primarily thefts. An interesting document and a special kind of a criminal record is represented by the oldest warrant for market thieves' arrest. There was quite a significant number of women amongst the thieves. In the old Bratislava, women were usually accused and found guilty of thievery and immoral behaviour. Thefts and crimes against morality formed a significant proportion of criminal trials and were often punished by the capital punishment. Fornication, unless it was connected with murder or infanticide was punished rather leniently. The most common punishment was flogging and banishment. When tried for fornication, women were usually punished more severely, whereas their partners often got away with a fine. Similarly, they punished adultery. Rape or defilement, especially if a girl was a virgin was considered extremely serious crime, almost universally punished by death penalty. The oldest town protocol and other document are full of cases in which women were objects of assaults, robberies and aggression. Another phenomenon, though not directly tantamount to the crime, but in a way connected to it was prostitution, the oldest profession in the world. Authorities tried to regulate prostitution by controlling the brothels. Profits from running a brothel were not insignificant and medieval Bratislava was not an exception. A typical female crime was witchcraft and magic. Several women were tried and condemned as witches in Bratislava. In conclusion, we can say that punishments in the middle ages were meted out according to municipal law codes and some other laws, but the final decision and punishment was influenced by several other factors.

Žena a zločin vo východoslovenských mestách v 16. storočí. Otázky, pramene, definície

Žena a zločin vo východoslovenských mestách v 16. storočí. Otázky, pramene, definície
(Woman and Crime in Upper Hungarian Towns in the 16th century)

Author(s):Blanka Szeghyová
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Gender Studies, Geography, Regional studies, History of Law, Criminal Law, 16th Century
Page Range:67-85
No. of Pages:19
Keywords:Hungary; upper Hungarian towns; women; crime; criminal law; witchcraft; 16th century;
Summary/Abstract:History of crime and punishment is not a marginal history. Quite the opposite, by showing which kinds of behaviour were unacceptable and punishable by the law, judicial records reveal norms of behaviour imposed by society on men and women. The author addresses several questions: What were the most frequent and typical charges brought against women? How does it correspond to the criminality of men? Were women and men treated differently for the same crime? Were there any gender differences in the punitive patterns? The paper uses examples from the four towns of Upper Hungary (present-day Eastern Slovakia) Kosice, Levoca, Bardejov and Presov, mainly from the second half of the sixteenth century, as judicial sources of an earlier date are rather scarce. Contemporary notion of crime and ways of dealing with criminal activities reflect the norms and values of the society. One of the most important immaterial property and value deeply entrenched in the mentality of the people of the 16th century was their good reputation. In case of men, it was based more on a concept of honour and in case of women, it was their chastity that counted. As a result, cases of defamation or slander were rather frequent among towns people. At the same time, the sixteenth century saw the increasing tendency of town authorities to regulate conduct, sexual behaviour and the family life of ordinary people. This phenomenon, called sometimes moralization of society or social disciplining was stimulated by the spread of the Reformation and the subsequent internal reform of the Catholic Church. Sexual offences and offences against the institution of marriage such as fornication, prostitution, desertion of one's husband, adultery, bigamy and incest were punished severely. It is interesting that the law did not discriminated between prostitution and fornication, using "fornication" as a blanket term for all kinds of immoral behaviour of unmarried people. Public shaming or flogging at the pillory and banishment were usual punishments for fornication. If there were no obstacles, the court would force the couple convicted of fornication to marry in prison. Sexual relations of married people with anybody other than their lawful husband or wife were punished in a similar way, but usually more strictly and capital punishment was not rare in such cases. It was one of the above-mentioned offences against morality and marriage that women were most frequently charged with. At the same time, courts would often for the same offence pronounce different sentence for a women and different for her partner. While the woman was flogged and banished, the man would get awav with a fine. On the other hand, men were most frequently accused of thievery. Punishments for thieves varied enormously, depending on individual circum stances of each case. Overall, however, male thieves used to get harsher punishments than women did. This might be explained by the fact, that women, unlike men, were mostly opportunistic petty thieves, who were in general treated more leniently. In murder charges, women were almost unheard of as the accused, unless we include a special group of infanticides into the category. Infanticide was a typical crime of single girls and was punished by the death penalty. Witchcraft charges were brought to the court only exceptionally in the sixteenth century and even then, accused women were pronounced innocent or discharged with an admonition only. The sex of the condemned determined also a kind of punishment they would get. Women were never hanged, broken by the wheel or quartered. On the other hand, death penalty by drowning was used only on women. Similarly, impalement in the grave, the usual penalty for infanticide was a typical female punishment. Urban judiciary had a unique place in the Hungarian judicial system and it seems that town authorities imposed stricter penalties than any other court.

Kriminalita žien v poľských mestách v 16.-17. storočí

Kriminalita žien v poľských mestách v 16.-17. storočí
(Female criminality in the polish towns in the 16th ~ 17th Centuries)

Author(s):Andrzej Karpiński
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Gender Studies, History of Law, Criminal Law, Modern Age, Culture and social structure , 16th Century, 17th Century
Page Range:86-105
No. of Pages:20
Keywords:Poland; women; crime; criminal law; witchcraft; prostitution; 16th century; 17th century;
Summary/Abstract:The paper tries to estimate a women's share of criminality in Poiand and their position in the world of professional criminals. The author focuses on the big cities of the Polish kingdom: Krakow, Poznan, Lwow, Gdansk, Lublin and Warsaw. The paper is divided into several parts that deal with various specific types of crime. Rather unusual crime category for women was the one where crimes such as conspiracy, rebellion and treason were included. Violation of regulations was more frequent. Robbing corpses that were victims of epidemics were usual charges brought against women. Women were also members of vagrant and beggar groups, which participated in various street-disturbances and misdemeanours. In the category of religious misdemeanours, women were found guilty mainly of prohibited activities such as witchcraft and magic. It was in the end of the 17th and the first half of the 18th centuries that Poland was most affected with the prosecution of witches. There were 115 women under the investigation and 78 out of them were taken to court during 150 years in the abovementioned cities. Murders committed by women were rare. Research has shown that only 40 women were charged with murder in these five big Polish cities from the end of the 16th until the 18th century. The city of Gdansk is a special case, because women formed as many as 40 % of all the murderers. Murder was punished by capital punishment without exception. On the other hand, women predominated in cases of infanticide. Among offences against marriage, we can find prostitution, procuration, adultery and bigamy. Women, especially prostitutes, were often accused of several offences simultaneously. Prostitutes came from various social strata. About 20 % of them came to a city from the countryside, the others came from artisan urban families. Exceptionally, even noble women who were hard up tried to earn some extra money by prostituting. Prostitutes were predominantly single women. Ten percent of prostitutes operated in brothels that were run by executioners. Official brothels in charge of executioners could be found almost in all the above-mentioned cities. The employees of the brothel were usually some shady prostitutes who came under surveillance of a town executioner following their public punishment. It was on the peripheries of a city that illegal brothels run by procurers and procuresses were to be found. Town magistrates knew about them, but tolerated their activities. A brothel of such kind employed about 3-5 prostitutes, sometimes as many as 10. However, among places were prostitutes operated were also public houses, inns, public baths, flats of clients and rented rooms. Street prostitutes represented the lowest rank of the hierarchy and offered their services in bushes or directly in the street. Again, it was women who dominated in the procuration business. Over 70 % of the accused of adultery were married women, who abandoned their husbands and lived in an illicet relationship. Thefts formed majority of town courts agenda. Majority of female thieves were artisans' daughters. Apart from them, there were daily labourers, peasants from nearby villages and wives and daughters of city servants for whom stealing was a chance to improve their circumstances. The main object of interest for female thieves were buildings and rent house, but also streets and market areas. Street thieves were usually specialised, some were shoplifters stealing from small stalls, other were pickpockets and cutpurses. Thefts occurred also in winebars, inns, churches and brothels. Many women were involved in theft-boot, handling stolen goods and profiteering. The age, family status, long time contact with a city and contacts to the underworld were other important determinants of criminal activities of women. It was not only young single girls from the poor families, who commited crimes, but also married women with children, for whom these activities formed additional income.

Život rané novoveké šlechtičny v českém království (právní limity a skutečné možnosti)

Život rané novoveké šlechtičny v českém království (právní limity a skutečné možnosti)
(Life of a Noble Woman in the Czech Kingdom in the Early Modern Period (Legal Limits and Opportunities))

Author(s):Marie Ryantová
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Gender Studies, History of Law, Criminal Law, Civil Law, Modern Age, Culture and social structure , Canon Law / Church Law
Page Range:106-117
No. of Pages:12
Keywords:Czech Kingdom; early modern period; noble woman; law; property; criminal law; canon law;
Summary/Abstract:The position of women was under the strong cultural influence. One of the factors that to a large extent determined lives of many women was the law. The law, however, reflected the division of society into classes or estates. There are obvious differences between legal position of men and women in the Roman, German, Slavic and that means also in Czech law. The fact that women had restricted rights was a consequence of the exercise of the rights of her father, husband or guardian and did not stem from the fact that she was a woman. The canon law was another factor that strongly influenced the life of a woman. According to the canon law the man was the head of the family who decided about children and was legally responsible for crimes committed by his wife and children. It was out of question that a woman should hold an office. The Czech law recognised three forms of guardianships: 1) natural (a relative or a guardian by statute), 2) appointed by the father and recorded in land registers or in authorisation Setter, 3) commissioned by the king. Restricted legal competence of women was most obvious in the sphere of contracting marriages. A woman or a girl, unless she was a widow, could not make a choice of her future husband, but fully depended on the decision of her relatives, mainly father, brothers or her male guardians. Property rights in Czech lands were based on an old institution of the indivisible part of patrimonial property. The father of the family was in charge of this indivisible part. The only situation when a woman could be in the same position was when there was a lack of male relatives. There were, however, differences in the rights of sons and daughters to this indivisible part of patrimonial property. Once married, a woman did not loose her legal competence, nevertheless her property rights were restricted and subordinated to her husband. Originally the entire woman's possession that she brought to the matrimonial home became her husband's property, but she could allot herself some part of it as her own. She had at her disposal three kinds of property: 1) dowry (dos), trousseau, a gift from her husband after the wedding night (dotalicium) - these were given to her as her share of patrimonial property and as a portion that she was entitled to in case of her husband's death, 2) other property that she was either given or inherited and 3) property that her husband allotted to her. The legal limits for women were the most striking in the area of hereditary rights. It was not so much discrimination as the old family tradition in the old Czech law, i.e. to maintain the indivisible patrimonial property in the family. It was necessary to restrict a woman's birthright after she married to avoid reduction of the family property. Single woman or a widow could act in front of court independently as accuser or accused without a guardian. Procedural competence of a married woman was limited and she was considered 'a prisoner of her husband'. She could not administer the property and therefore was not able to sue anybody. There were several rights that women in the Czech kingdom were not denied and according to the law they could use them in the same way as men. Moreover, in some instances their position was more advantageous than that of men. It was the result of the general attitude to women as 'the weaker sex' and their supposed lack of experience and ignorance. Some of these rights, however, were granted to women just theoretically, either because they could be exercised only under exceptional circumstances or because women were not aware of their rights or did not dare to lodge their claims.

Právne postavenie žien v Kluži v 16. storočí

Právne postavenie žien v Kluži v 16. storočí
(Legal position of women in Cluj in the 16th century)

Author(s):Enikő Rusz-Fogarasi
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Gender Studies, History of Law, Civil Law, Culture and social structure , 16th Century
Page Range:118-125
No. of Pages:8
Keywords:Cluj; 16th century; women; legal status; law; property;
Summary/Abstract:The privilege granted to the town of Cluj in 1405 by the Hungarian king Sigismund was of great significance for its future development. Since the second half of the 15th century, the town used the law of Buda. The guild statutes regulated not only how artisans should perform their craft, but also other, private spheres of their lives. Guild and municipal statutes from the medieval period as well as the later ones form the 16th century concerned guild members who were, obviously, all men. However, in guild documents we can find some legal records that relate to women, especially in connection with the daughters and wives of late guild masters. At the first sight, it might seem that the guilds tried to protect lonely women in all the cases. Nevertheless, the guild statutes differed and sometimes a guild would change the clauses over the time. For example, at first a guild masters ' widow was allowed to take over her late husband's craft over some period of time (usually one year) or as long as she kept his family name. A woman living on her own could practice the craft only under the condition that the products met the standards of the guild. In Cluj, there was a custom, widespread in other municipal laws, according to which the wife’s and husband's possessions became their common property after the wedding. On the other hand, unlike in many municipal laws, where a husband and a wife got equal share, in Cluj, after the death of a partner the man got two thirds and the woman only one third of their common property. It is characteristic of the period that wives, daughters and widows did not have the same position as their male counterparts. Nonetheless, they had certain rights in the municipal law system, e.g. they could inherit their paternal family house, make their last wills, freely decide about their property and even practice the craft of their deceased husbands for a limited time. A woman could be involved in business and after her husband's death received one third of the jointly acquired property during the marriage. A widow paid the same taxes as the others, but if she married a noble or away from the town, she lost her municipal right of the house. The taxes were the same for women and men because it was a house or a piece of land that were taxed, not the owner.

Testamenty aristokratických žien v Sedmohradskom kniežatstve

Testamenty aristokratických žien v Sedmohradskom kniežatstve
(Last Wills of Noble Women in the Transylvanian Principality)

Author(s):Ildikó Horn
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Gender Studies, History of Law, Civil Law, Modern Age, Culture and social structure , 17th Century
Page Range:126-141
No. of Pages:16
Keywords:Transylvanian Principality; women; noble women; will; property; law;
Summary/Abstract:The study is a part of a bigger research project that aims to publish all preserved last wills of princes, aristocracy, middle and lower nobility, burghers and other city-dwellers and churchmen. The contents and the form of last wills depended on the law customs and traditional phrasing and therefore represented a highly formalised genre. In many cases, apart from a testator, there were other people, especially lawyers who influenced the style and wording of the last wills. Therefore, the question arises whether wills could possibly be an indicator of a testator's personality and whether there are any special characteristics of the last wills of women. The author addresses the problem of how many times and at which occasions women would draw their wills, what supplements they added to them and what reasons led them to do so. Testators all around Europe rationalized making their last wills by the same reasons: men are mortal, but no one knows the time of his death and therefore decisions about the division of the property should be made beforehand so the bereaved can peacefully get their share. Nevertheless, most last wills were drawn while in danger of death, during serious illness, plague epidemics or in the war times. It was only in the last third of the 17th century under the influence of baroque piety that the tendency to make a will while still alive and well started to grow. Women would often draw a last will in the time of their pregnancy as many of them died while in labour. Another reason for women was their new marriage as they tried to provide for their children from previous marriages. Amongst burghers and other city dwellers, it was usual for a married couple to make a joint last will in a ceremonious manner. Apart from the questions when and how many times, question how is also interesting. The last wills of prominent men fall into two basic categories. Most of them made a long, detailed, stylistically complex will with the help of lawyers. The second group includes wills made in danger. These are exceptionally short and concise, drawn before awaited war conflict or during acute illness, but most frequently, they are changes of previous last wills. With women, it is not possible to set up similar categories, because the practice of making women's wills was extremely diverse. Unrelated to the amount and value of bequeathed property, women's wills vary enormously in length. The contents of wills, division of property, requests of testators on their bereaved, and experiences and advice they wanted to hand out to them, form the most interesting questions of the analyses. It is surprising that just few wills contain wishes about the burial place, burial ceremony and its expenses. Requests for a final resting-place were usually related to three other aspects - religion, burial expenses and tombstone engravings. The practice of women that had experienced unhappy marriage or married several times is quite interesting. In fact, it was not always a widow's last husband who she wished to be buried next to. Wills often contain a short resume, an evaluation of marriage, but there are substantial differences between men and women . Men were usually more critical and openly spoke about problems. Women were more reserved in the assessment of their marriage. Typically, they were critical only of the fact that their husbands spent their money and did not provide for their living. However, it is a telltale sign if a woman did not wish to be buried next to her husband, used her maiden name or did not mention her husband in her will at all. Analyses of the relation to one's children revealed that mothers forgave much more easily. There are numerous examples of cases, when a father disinherited a child from acquired estates, whereas there is only one case when a mother did so. Women had more positive attitude also towards their other relatives. Distributive parts of last wills are valuable not only for disclosing quality of relationships in a family, but also for often being the only complete evidence about a woman's property. Women from rich aristocratic circles showed a leaning for charity. Hospitals, poorhouses were under their patronage and they took care of the disabled, the poor, orphans and deprived widows. Another thing is, however, how wills were executed in practice. To a considerable extent, last wills fulfilment depended on the relation of a testator to his or her relatives and on conscientiousness of wills executors. Testators were aware of such difficulties and tried all the possibilities provided in the law to secure their last wills. Moreover, it was a usual custom - and according to our findings, it seems that it was used much more by women than men - to add blessing and cursing formulas against those who would and those who would not comply with their wills. It seems as if women believed more in blessing and cursing than secular justice.

Vdovy ve šlechtické společnosti raného novoveku

Vdovy ve šlechtické společnosti raného novoveku
(Noble Widows in the Early Modern Period)

Author(s):Pavel Král
Language:Czech
Subject(s):Gender Studies, Modern Age, Culture and social structure , 16th Century
Page Range:142-152
No. of Pages:10
Keywords:women; noble widows; mourning; marriage; early modern period; virginity; matrimony; widowhood;
Summary/Abstract:In concordance with her biological function and social position, the woman in the early modern period underwent three basic states - virginity, matrimony and widowhood. Medieval society had the state of virginity in high esteem; however, this status was reserved only for chosen ones. The others were to live - unless they wanted to resist Christian morality - in matrimony, which had been gaining respect especially in the teaching of Protestant theologians since the beginning of the 16th century. The most contradictory category of womanhood was widowhood. Early modern widows were subjects to broad scale of public opinions and life opportunities that ranged from those of respect and freedom to those of derision and scorn. The most relevant work devoted to the fate of women was Vidua Christiana by Erasmus of Rotterdam, who wrote it for Maria Habsburg. Jan Kherner from Pilsen translated the book into Czech in 1595 and added many valuable domestic observations of the situation. How, according to Erasmus should a decent Christian widow behave? The house of a widow should be kept clean and tidy. He also meant that it should be spiritually pure and free of worldly joys. Management of the household and estates left to a widow by her late husband was considered as one of her most important duties. Danger came in the form of various greedy and mercenary men, for who widows represented frequent and easy prey. Great stress was put on a distinctive function of clothes. Noble women wore mourning clothes usually for couple of weeks, but there were widows who were in deep mourning until the end of their lives. In the same time, also theologians of the Union of Brethren dealt with social position of widows. In their Decrees they delineated ideal conduct of widows. For example, they were to be modest, wear plain clothes and pray regularly. Brother Lucas (Lukas), one of the leading figures of the Union from the beginning of the 16th century, distinguished two types of widows. Brothers from the Union community were supposed to take care of those over sixty, who should be supported by Union common money. The younger ones were expected to take care of themselves or they marry. Generally, however, Lucas was not in favour of the second marriage. Under the burden of his tragic life, Jan Amos Comenius wrote about the sad fate of widows and widowers in his work 0 sirobe (1634). His recommendations to widows included sexual abstinence, cautiousness in choosing a new husband and if possible, not to marry again. The Czech law deals explicitly with marital gifts in the marriage contracts. A marriage contract of a future husband and wife included provisions for the wife if the man should die first. Usually, men added one third of their property. Nevertheless, although the law was clear about the marital gifts, they were repeatedly neglected. The wording of marriage contracts was reflected also in last wills of nobles. Husbands would bequeath marital gifts to their wives and often more than that. They would also allocate a house or a residence in which their wives were to live after their deaths. Often these provisions were granted to women only until the time they remarried, though sometimes even to the end of their lives. A noble widow could retain her social and material status by being appointed a legal representative of her fatherless children and an administrator of her late husbands' property. In practice, it meant that the property was at a widow's free disposal without need of authorization from the land courts. For some young widows death of their husbands was a beginning of a new life stage. For the first time in their life they became seemingly and relatively independent and free to govern their own life. Whereas it was her father, brothers or tutors who decided about her future before she married or her husband after the wedding, a widow depended only on her financial means and public opinion. The position of noble widows was rather contradictory in the early modern period. On the one hand, a widow was protected by traditional Christian morality and law clauses and on the other, she had to cope with the negative image of widowhood created by contemporary moralists on the basis of a few specific cases. Sometimes the problems of inheritance division and coexistence would push a widow even to a court trial with her late husband's relatives.

Žena v pramenech osobní povahy v 17. století

Žena v pramenech osobní povahy v 17. století
(Women in Autobiographical Sources of the 17th Century)

Author(s):Josef Hrdlička
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Gender Studies, History of Law, Culture and social structure , Family and social welfare, 17th Century
Page Range:153-163
No. of Pages:11
Keywords:autobiographical sources; women; 17th century;
Summary/Abstract:Great number of preserved documents concerning women's history has the disadvantage of being written by men. As a result, women are depicted through the male point of view and experience. Therefore, it is not possible to study history focused exclusively on women, but only history of women in its social context. The author studies position of women based on documents, which in Czech historiography have been termed, though not quite adequately, as sources of autobiographical statements (prameny osobni povahy). It is an equivalent of German Selbstzeugnisse or more modern synonym Ego-Dokumenten. They are documents of autobiographical character with great informative value about mentality of their authors. Usually, there are three kinds of these personal sources: diaries, autobiographies and memoirs. In broader sense travelogues, correspondence, albums, scrapbooks and chronicles can be included into the category. From the end of the 16th century, lives of lower nobility started to be increasingly influenced by bureaucratisation. The obligation to stay in an office for a longer time influenced carriers of men, who owned manors. Manor administration was taken over by their wives. Despite the fact that these women were familiar with the basics of manor management, they unexpectedly encounte¬red resistance of their own subjects. It was impossible to root out the notion that their master does not necessarily have to be a man out or the traditional peasants’ mentality. However, such an idea was not foreign to the minds of the lower noblewomen either. They blamed their husbands for ridicule they were treated with by their subjects and servants. In their letters, wives urged their husbands, though in vain, to end their carrier as officials and return home to consolidate family and property matters. In comparison with the lower noblewomen living on small estates and manors, aristocratic noblewomen had to face another potential source of resistance. It was an estate office, the admi¬nistrative centre of their manor house and estates. Estate administrators had their own agenda and aims, often different from plans of the landlord’s wife. Family chronicles, containing usually short and concise records about rites of passage of the family represent valuable sources of autobiographical statement. Family chronicles reveal a lot about position of women, particularly about private sphere of their lives. They include informa¬tion about events traditionally associated with women’s lives such as weddings and childbearing. Private correspondence, family chronicles or notes added to printed economic calendars are full of records that reflected maternal role of a woman and her function of carrying on the family line. From the last quarter of the 17thcentury, aristocratic women, even though not necessarily from the families active in politics in the Czech kingdom, showed an increasing awareness of their belonging to their own family and participated in writing family records for their children and other future descendants.

Manželstvo a výber partnera v Rakusku v ranom novoveku

Manželstvo a výber partnera v Rakusku v ranom novoveku
(Marriage and the choice of one's partner in Austria in the early modern period)

Author(s):Beatrix Bastl
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Gender Studies, Sociology, Modern Age, Culture and social structure , Family and social welfare
Page Range:164-176
No. of Pages:13
Keywords:Austria; modern period; marriage; social event; partner choice; widow;
Summary/Abstract:Marriage was not a private act, but a social event with economic consequences. This was the reason why various factors such as economic profit for the family, traditional respect for equality of partners in social hierarchy, continuity of a family line and provision of some nobility estates influenced the choice of one’s partner. Nevertheless, there were cases when a son or a daughter did not comply with the plans of their parents and came into conflict with them. Spontaneous love could destroy carefully inter¬connected system of economic interests and significance of hierarchy. These were the underpin¬nings of a complex marriage system, an intricate picture of society in which everybody seemed to be related to everybody. The marriage circles were closed to outsiders from several causes. One was quality and structure of representative choice and the other a tendency of nobles to marry equally. Other reasons included circle of friends and family ties as well as local client system. The law of the country and the dynasty law of succession determined destiny of family mem¬bers. It was not only splendor familia, a notion that became a legal term, but also political wisdom that decided about marriages and a proper life-style of individual family members. Negotiations about marriages and testaments revealed the power and hierarchy of genders. They represent legal documents of an aristocratic system of gifts and benefits or a kind of a gift game. Analysed prenuptial agreements had a following structure: Aim of the contract (arenga), engagement or marriage clause, religious clause (in case of mixed marriages) and the most extensive was the part about marital property law including dowry, trousseau, a gift from the husband after the wedding night (Morgengabe), marriage gift and widow’s allowance. Quality and quantity of a dowry formed one part of the system. The acceptance of a marriage gift from a man was of great significance and formed an obligation. Dowry excluded a woman not only from their hereditary right to paternal property, but noticeably restricted also their birthright to family or parental property. The character of this exclusion suggests that it was a male privile¬ge. Also, preference to give a dowry in cash indicates a tendency to disinherit women. Evidence of such practice is present also in above mentioned prenuptial agreements and marriage contracts. Dowry in the form of an estate was too precious to give away with a daughter. Strategic lucrative estates were reserved for male descendants, though the procedure varied depending on the struc¬ture of an individual family. Widows were entitled to an appropriate residence, subsistence allo¬wance, annual allowance and payment for Widow years i.e. the earliest possible departure of the widow from the estate. In case of marriages of daughters-heiresses, husband was to take the name of the bride’s family or at least add it after his family name.

Hospodárenie - netradičná úloha aristokratických žien v ranonovovekom Uhorsku

Hospodárenie - netradičná úloha aristokratických žien v ranonovovekom Uhorsku
(Estate management as an unusual occupation of Noble women in Hungary in the early modern period)

Author(s):Várkonyi Gábor
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Gender Studies, Modern Age, Culture and social structure
Page Range:177-184
No. of Pages:8
Keywords:early modern period; Hungary; estate management; noble women;
Summary/Abstract:There have been few stereotypes in Hungarian historiography concerning the period of the Ottoman occupation or early modern period dating that originated mostly in the 19th century. Farkas Deák was one of the first historians who realized the importance of the sources for history of women and started using them. He published women's correspondence and wrote their biographies. He attempted to portray Hungarian aristocratic women as perfect faithful wives, loving and caring mothers, diligent housewives, good Christians and educated persons. This image is however the embodiment of an ideal woman from the author's times, that is the second half of the 19th century. In fact, the image was already archaic in the times when it was created. The author analyses and illustrates the notion of a 'diligent housewife' on the background of the social situation of the 17th century. Is it not an anachronism to talk about housewives in connection with aristocracy? The basic problem is to define the contents of the term 'women’s work’. Whereas the 'men’s work' is well defined and framed in time and space (e.g, politics or military service has concrete meaning), it is difficult to find a definition for 'women's work'. Women's work is something that men do not do. To simplify it, we can say that women's sphere is the family, household and child bearing.The archbishop of Esztergom Peter Pázmány, a great figure of the Catholic reform in the 17th century paid a special attention to education of Christian girls in his collection of sermons. Girls were supposed to learn how to spin, weave, embroider, tie nets, and lead a good, honest and useful life. The women were expected to sit at home, talk to God and - as a sign of their gratitude - to cook tasty dishes for their husbands. Other authors expressed the same opinion about house-hold duties as the proper occupation for women. Apart from the Pázmány‘s writings, there were other works dealing with education of girls and behaviour of women, for instance “Horologii principium” by Antonio Guevara published in Graz in 1610. A typical example of aristocratic estates managing women was Elizabeth Báthory. She was in charge of the Nádasdy‘s estates and when she defied some maltreatment of their property, she was just doing what contemporaries expected a woman in her position to do. She administered the estates and the household, protected the property of her late husband and took care of her subjects. Elizabeth Rákoczi, though not a widow as Elizabeth Báthory, was often left alone in charge of the family estates. She did not have a special training in estates management, but her education, practicality and experience made her an efficient manager. She was acquainted with inventories and tolls and was even familiar with efficient technological methods for agricultural production. In order to evaluate and analyse economic abilities and competence of Hungarian aristocratic women in the 17th century, more comparative case studies would be needed.

Cudzinky v úlohe manželiek uhorských veľmožov v 16.-17. storočí

Cudzinky v úlohe manželiek uhorských veľmožov v 16.-17. storočí
(Foreign Wives of Hungarian Aristocrats in the 16 -17th Centuries)

Author(s):András Koltai
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Gender Studies, Modern Age, Culture and social structure , Family and social welfare, 16th Century, 17th Century
Page Range:185-195
No. of Pages:11
Keywords:Hungary; aristocracy; aristocratic houses; women; foreign wives; 16th century; 17th century;
Summary/Abstract:Hungarian aristocracy had universally adopted a critical attitude towards "foreign nations" in the 17th century. Nevertheless/ Hungarian aristocrats could not, but also did not want to prevent poli¬tical, business and even marital relations with the aristocracy from other countries of the Hab¬sburg monarchy altogether. It is necessary to know marriage strategy of Hungarian aristocracy to be able to understand the position of their foreign wives, in this respect, a note written by Friedrich von Teuffenbach is rather enlightening. He summed up his ideas about his future wife into ten points, out of which only the first one - that the girl should be pretty - was connected directly to the girl herself. The other nine were related to social and economic advantages expected to be gained by marrying her. On the one hand, beauty was not always a prerequisite of a marriage, but on the other hand, it was not enough that a girl came from a rich and prominent family. By proper behaviour and con¬duct, she was expected to represent her family in the new home in a respectable way and thus contribute to the authority of her husband. It was only after the ascent of the Habsburgs to the Hungarian throne that the Hungarian elite started to realise the importance, advantages and consequences of foreign marriages. The country got under the common rule with the Czech kingdom and neighbouring Austrian lands. Hungarian aristocrats had to share high offices with the Austrian and Czech nobility and they were further disadvantaged by the fact that the royal court and central offices were permanently outside the territory of Hungary. That was the reason why only few aristocratic houses from Hungary joined "royal court aristocracy”. Court aristocracy held the most prominent court and governmental positions and at the same time, multiple family ties interconnected their members, if one of the Hungarian families succeeded in penetrating into these circles, it could have positive effect on future carriers of their members. Nevertheless, apart from the Pálffys, only few noblemen succeeded in becoming established members of the court aristocracy. None of them improved his career by marrying foreign wife in any significant way. In the 17th century, the estates tried to preserve their national and traditional characteristics. However, towards the end of the 17th century it was becoming more and more obvious that the future of Hungary was the Habsburg monarchy and its common aristocracy. After the liberation from the Ottoman occupation, many foreign noble houses were donated esta¬tes in Hungary. By the late eighties of the 17th century, mixing of Hungarian nobility with court aristocracy and marrying foreign women had become commonplace. Foreign marriages of Transylvanian princes form a special category from several diverse rea¬sons. These marriages were first of all of crucial importance for the foreign policy and therefore brides came from the most prominent aristocratic houses. Foreign wives did not only bring the higher prestige and new useful connections, but also their own customs and numerous entourages. It would seem that the trickiest question would be a common language for communication, but in fact, it was not such a big problem. Actually, Hun¬garian aristocrats usually knew German or Italian languages and some of the foreign brides understood Latin. Only occasionally would a husband need an interpreter for talking to his wife. As for the dresses, there was not much difference in comparison with Hungarian women. What affected the lives of foreign wives most, were usually cultural differences and alien traditi¬ons. Many of them adjusted to the Hungarian lifestyle only with difficulties and tried to preserve their usual habits. They longed for the security of their old home especially in difficult situations such as labour or after the deaths of their husbands. Because their position as widows was not particularly desirable, many of them decided to return to their homeland. Fates of foreign wives throw some light on aims, options and boundaries of the Hungarian or central European aris¬tocracy in the early modern period.

Podnikatelské aktivity samostatných žen v Bardejove v prvé polovine 17. století

Podnikatelské aktivity samostatných žen v Bardejove v prvé polovine 17. století
(Economic activities of independent women in Bardejov in the first half of the 17th century)

Author(s):Marie Marečková
Language:Czech
Subject(s):Gender Studies, Economic history, Culture and social structure , 17th Century
Page Range:196-204
No. of Pages:9
Keywords:independent women; Bardjeov; economic activities; 17th century;
Summary/Abstract:Economically independent women with their own income belonged to the productive group of urban society. I is worthwhile to make use of town accounts books, cloth registers/ books of sold and bought property and testaments to evaluate their achievement in economic sphere in the long run. Independent women in Bardejov in the first half of the 17th century were mostly poor women from the lower classes. Maid servants in private service were members of the household of their employees and were not taxed individually. Their job position was stable and was not prone to suffer from economic depressions. About one quarter of taxed women was daily labourers. They also belonged to the group of economically independent women as they worked for a daily wage and provision. Por¬tion of independent women in comparison with the all tax payers in Bardejov during the first half of the 17th century was decreasing. There is an apparent connection between the economic prosperity of the town and the num¬ber of women active in business or production, especially among tenants, but also among house¬hold owners. It seems that the usual phenomenon in the medieval towns - higher portion of women in the population was not so striking in the early modern period. The number of indepen¬dent women correlated to the economic possibilities of towns. General lack of money hindered business activities of the middle and lower classes in general, but more often affected women rather than men. The analyses of their testaments revealed a complicated system of small loans and borrowings and sporadic use of pawning or selling their perso¬nal belongings, clothes, household equipment and other moveable goods. Well-off women were involved in bigger credit and loan transaction with the town council. The analyses of the cloth registers from the years 1606-1650 showed that domestic cloth produc¬tion was steady or even increasing in the times of economic prosperity. About 200-300 inhabitants of Bardejov were registered as producers of cloth and a quarter of them were women. Nevertheless, independent women did not succeed in penetrating into the group of the biggest cloth investors and merchants. As testaments clearly demonstrate, some of them were rather successful in their business, though. A large number of women were small-scale market-sellers of food at the local market. Independent and married middle class women, according to their testaments, had more pro¬perty than indicated in the tax registers. The property was at their free disposal. The size of the property, that they acquired either by inheritance or own economic activities, determined the choice of husband, everyday life, family life style and education of children. At the same time, the size of the property was decisive in setting a level of personal independence. A higher level of independence ensured that they could freely dispose with their property. The husband and wife were co-owners and the husband needed express consent of his wife for selling their joint proper¬ty. After death of one of a married couple, the other took over the property. If a widow or a wido¬wer married again they were entitled to one third of the property and so was their new partner, whereas all the children from the previous marriage got together the remaining third.

Násilie páchané na ženách a možnosti obrany v období raného novoveku

Násilie páchané na ženách a možnosti obrany v období raného novoveku
(Violence on Women and Protection Possibilities in the Early Modern Period)

Author(s):Tünde Lengyelová
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Gender Studies, Modern Age, Culture and social structure , Studies in violence and power
Page Range:205-217
No. of Pages:13
Keywords:early modern period; women; violence; protection possibilities;
Summary/Abstract:Violence on women is a problem deeply rooted in society, a phenomenon formed by power relations between the sexes as well as by social institutions. The idea of dominance of men had prevailed in most of societies and was reflected in their laws and customs. The attitude of men towards women has been always controversial, oscillating between attraction and loathe, fascination and hatred. The cause of many negative feelings was fear - stemming from ignorance and differences between sexes. Such conflicting feelings are present in biblical Judaism as well as in Greek and Roman classical literature. Later, Christian theologians as well as medical science contributed greatly to this process. Lawyers quoted the law to justify women's inferior status. In literature, women were either idealised or denounced.According to modern studies, there are four correlations that contribute to the occurrence of gender violence: 1.habit of violent solution of conflicts, 2. economic differences between men and women, 3. masculine ideal of dominance, 4. economic and decision-making authority of men in the family. The situation in the early modern Hungary was particularly critical. In the world with ubiquitous threat of losing one’s life, violence became a form of survival. It is in this light that the shift from traditional norms such as brotherly love, towards rough treatment and violence in interpersonal behaviour should be explained. Apart from physical aggression on women, there are other forms of behaviour, such as mental cruelty, humiliation in the public or enforced compliance with demands of the stronger that are classified as violent. Violent offenders were primarily a woman’s next of kin - husband, father, mother, siblings or other relatives - mainly her legal representatives, but also her own children or stepchildren. Apart from them, it was also officials, such as judges on all levels, who used or abused their power. Most violence happened at home. What was happening behind the closed doors of one’s home was considered to be one’s own business and there was usually no need of the intervention from outside. Sanctions against harming one’s wife were not explicitly stated in the law and therefore such cases would appear in court only occasionally, mostly when it led to a tragic end. The author tries to describe forms of violence, aggression and harm on women and ways of solving and addressing the problem according to contemporary mentality. Widespread defence against violence was magic. Women would contact a supposed witch or hex in order to find out how to make their men stop beating them. Sometimes magic was used as prevention against violence, right after wedding. Another way out was running away or separation. Catholic Church since the council of Trent recognized cruel treatment of women by their husbands as sufficient cause for separation, though only temporary. Neither was it easy to achieve separation or divorce in Protestant or in Reformed Churches. It is apparent from cases cited in the paper, that such solution was exceptional. Nevertheless, if a divorce petitioner was a prominent person who can afford to pay for it, their cases were treated more leniently, and not quite in line with the usual procedure, though even then the process was rather difficult. What was the position of a woman after divorce? According to Hungarian hereditary law, only few women were lucky to own such real estates that they could live on. A divorced or separated woman usually remained in ligam that means that she was not quite free until her ex-husbanďs death. One of the options was to go back to her parents J place or to other relatives, but it usually amounted to a servant-like position. Perhaps the only decent solution was to withdraw into the seclusion of a convent.There was no solution to the majority of cases of domestic violence, so women continued to suffer. Occasionally the family concerned about the public opinion would step in and try to resolve the conflict.

Právne a sociálne postavenie poddaných žien

Právne a sociálne postavenie poddaných žien
(Legal and Social Position of Serf Women)

Author(s):Mária Kohútová
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Gender Studies, History of Law, Modern Age, Culture and social structure
Page Range:218-225
No. of Pages:8
Keywords:serf women; serf men; modern period; legal position; social position
Summary/Abstract:The law did not specify legal position of serf women in the modern period. It dealt only with serf men. Nevertheless, a serf woman as the head of a household or managing a farm was not an exceptional occurrence. Such women were subject to the same laws and customs as serf men. Similarly, they were restricted in their right to move away from the territory of their landlord. Women managing farms were usually widows. Some widows did not continue with managing the farm that belonged to their late husbands, but there were exceptions who would run the farm together with their sons and even those who took over all the duties and obligations connected to the management of the farm (corveé, taxes and in kind). Even if women succeeded in running a farm, it was not always advantageous for them. Their obligations to the landlord were not decreased if they had small children, though rearing children was time-consuming and obviously meant further duties. It was more advantageous for a widow to be a landless serf. Serfs of the same status were equal not only in their duties, but they were all equally punished for their possible offences and entitled to the same level of financial rewards for their agricultural work. A serf woman did not have much opportunity to decide freely about her life. She had to adjust to the customs and try not to violate them so she would not be excluded from the village community. In all the important matters, it was the landlord who wielded the clout.

Alžbeta Rákócziová a Juraj Erdódy - príbeh strastiplného manželstva z prelomu 17. a 18. storočia

Alžbeta Rákócziová a Juraj Erdódy - príbeh strastiplného manželstva z prelomu 17. a 18. storočia
(Elizabeth Rákóczi and George Erdődy. The Story of a Problematic Marriage from the Turn of the 17th and 18th Centuries)

Author(s):Borbála Benda
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):History, Gender Studies, Modern Age, Culture and social structure , Family and social welfare, 17th Century, 18th Century
Page Range:226-235
No. of Pages:10
Keywords:marriage; problematic marriage; 17th century; 18th century; Elizabeth Rákóczi; George Erdődy;
Summary/Abstract:Bad and problematic marriages were not rare in the early modern period. Elizabeth Rákóczi was orphaned at the age of ten. She was the only owner of the numerous lucrative estates and manors. She was not even 14 when she married Adam Erdődy. Nevertheless, only couple of weeks after her wedding the husband was fatally injured in a battle with the Ottomans. Several of her husband's relatives immediately claimed their right to her property and so she had to marry as soon as possible. George Erdődy, the cousin of her late husband, seemed a— suitable suitor. He had been studying law in Vienna and starting his career that was later to culminate in his position as a judge royal, one of the highest court officials of the realm. For the house of Erdődy the marriage was prom ising because they would be able to keep many lucrative Rákóczi's estates in the family. Elizabeth, on the other hand, was not too eager to marry George; she was waiting for a better suitor, probably for Paul Esterházy. In the end, however, she did marry George Erdődy. Their marriage can be divided into three visibly different stages. Decisive are the years when Elizabeth left her husband. He asked for the mediators and though the conflicts between them were settled, their relationship cooled off. George was often in debts and the profits from his estates were not enough for his living standard. Living in Vienna he usually used his wife's estates yields to cover his expenses. Moreover, he pawned and even sold some of her property without her knowledge. In the first years of their marriage, he limited her freedom, would not take her with him and did want her to go to and be entertained at courts of neighbouring nobles. Perhaps out of jealousy he did not let her go to Sintava where Paul Esterházy was holding a ball. George's servants, who did not listen to her orders, further worsened their marital relationship. Moreover, George's servants denounced and complained about her to him. In the time of revolt of Imrich Thököly, the insurgents occupied her manors and captured her. Eventually she was able to run away to Poland with her valuables. Elizabeth had the feeling that her husband did not support her in these hard times. Later, when the property was returned to her, she tried to restore her as well as her husband's estates. George stayed in Vienna, though. This led to further conflicts. George addressed mediators again and accused her of "turning her back to him." This situation repeated itself several times. In the autumn of 1703, she had to flee to Novigrad in Croatia where she lived until her death. Nevertheless, Croatia remained a foreign country to her. Household management was only substitute activity so she would not think of her lost property. Despite seemingly peaceful state, Elizabeth suffered a lot in her marriage. Several problems would show repeatedly in their marriage. Elizabeth was thrifty and prudent whereas George Erdődy was always making debts. They had different interests too: Elizabeth was fond of hunting she used to send some of the killed animals to her husband. Erdődy if ever interested in hunting he would send his servants instead of going himself. Elizabeth wanted to live her own life, administer her property and amuse herself without her husband. Erdődy wished to spend more time with her wife. We do not know why Elizabeth disliked her husband, but the fact was that she often avoided him.

Dievčenské vzdelávanie v Uhorsku

Dievčenské vzdelávanie v Uhorsku
(Education of Girls in Hungary)

Author(s):Ewa Kowalská
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Gender Studies, Education, Modern Age, Culture and social structure , History of Education, 18th Century
Page Range:236-243
No. of Pages:8
Keywords:Hungary; women; girls; education; 18th century; literacy;
Summary/Abstract:The paper is based on the analysis of the state of girls education in Hungary in the 18th century. Different gender roles and cultural consequences of diverse confessional development resulted in different perception of the role of girls education. As long as her husband or some other legal personal representative accompanied a woman, she was in no need to prove her identity in writing and therefore literacy as one of the basic elements of formal education can not be taken for granted. Though the social importance of literacy was rapidly increasing among aristocracy, this development lagged behind in case of girls and women and was almost non-existent among the lower classes. The change was brought in with the efforts for intellectual and social revival that resulted in creation of Jansenism and Pietism movements. Also, a complex of state governed reforms contributed to the amendment of the situation. It promoted a new understanding of the role of girls education that led to foundation of specialised schools and institutes. The paper looks at their curricula and points out the structural change in education that took place on the break of the 19th century.

Materinská starostlivosť a šľachtické vzdelávacie inštitúcie

Materinská starostlivosť a šľachtické vzdelávacie inštitúcie
(Maternal Care and Educational Institutions for Nobility)

Author(s):Olga Khavanova
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Gender Studies, Education, Culture and social structure , History of Education, Family and social welfare
Page Range:244-255
No. of Pages:12
Keywords:women; nobility; maternal care; education;
Summary/Abstract:The second half of the eighteenth century in the Habsburg Monarchy was the age, when political practice and ideology of the Viennese court, traditionally described as absolutism, absorbed enlightened methods and principles. The watchword of the "common good" demanded the nobility to be useful subjects and gave an opportunity to useful subjects of common origin to be ennobled. An important instrument of the social policy was education, understood as both the process of accumulation of knowledge, and as formally recognised degree of competence. In the Habsburg Monarchy, and Hungary in particular, where the numerous nobility still remained both the pillar of the old regime and one of the main protagonists of modernity, privileged educational institutions (colleges, academies) served the task of bringing up the loyal and competent bureaucratic elite to fill different levels of the royal and county administration. It was the whole range of scholarship funds under the patronage of the king, the church, or private donators that served the task to ease access to education for lesser, impoverished nobles and special categories of commoners (employees of the Hungarian Treasury Chamber and offices subordinated to it). The article examines the evolution of admission policies to privileged schools of the Habsburg Monarchy in the 1750s1780s with a special attention paid to the justifications adduced by the applicants, especially women, and requirements put in by the authorities to the petitioners. In the Age of Counterreformation those were converts, orphans and the offspring of impoverished nobles, who enjoyed the primary right to hold such scholarships, and female petitioners (mostly widows), were stressing the facts of conversion, bitter orphanage of their sons and ultimate poverty of their families after the husband's death. Inasmuch as the authorities began to stress the subjects individual contribution to the common good, mothers were to emphasise their late husbands careers and their family's traditional loyalty and zeal on the royal service. In the system of values, where the contribution to the common good was turning into the main criterion of granting social support in the form of scholarships women could not turn into a special group with formally fixed rights and privileges. At the same time the relatively high share of petitions written in the name of women demonstrates, that having widowed and turned into the heads their families, they were bearing responsibility for the future of their children and were competing not without success for their better lot with male and other female petitioners.

Kongregácia regulovaných kanonistiek sv. Augustína rehole Notre Dame v Bratislave v 18. storočí

Kongregácia regulovaných kanonistiek sv. Augustína rehole Notre Dame v Bratislave v 18. storočí
(Congregation of Regulated St. Augustine nuns of the Notre Dame Order and their Convent in Bratislava in the 18th Century)

Author(s):Miroslav Kamenický
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Christian Theology and Religion, Gender Studies, History of Church(es), Modern Age, 18th Century
Page Range:256-266
No. of Pages:11
Keywords:Slovakia; Bratislava; modern age; 18th century; St. Augustine; nuns; Notre Dame Order;religious orders and congregations;
Summary/Abstract:The sixteenth century, Reformation and Re-Catholization represented a great challenge for nuns and monks in convents and monasteries. A new type of religious order - the Society of Jesus was founded in 1534. Its members - Jesuits focused mainly on educational work. They founded schools for boys on the all levels. Following example of Jesuits, women's orders started to mushroom. In 1535, it was St. Ursula Order and in the end of the 16th century, it was the Order of Notre Dame. Their main activities were care and education of girls. In 1628, the Order of Notre Dame was transformed into Congregation of St. Augustine nuns of the Order of Notre Dame. The order originated in Lorraine region and spread to France and Germany. Notre Dame nuns appeared in Bratislava, the capital of Hungarian kingdom then, for the first time in 1747. They came from Bavaria, from a convent near Regensburg. In Bratislava, they gradually built a spacious convent, convent school for girls and a boarding school. They focused on education of girls from middle and upper classes. The Convent enjoyed the patronage of the empress Maria Theresa, who took personal interest and visited it several times. The author deals in detail with some aspects of the daily routine of young girls educated in the convent. Food and medical were on a good level. Religion, French and German languages, geography, history, accounting and needlework was free of charge. Hungarian and Italian languages and drawing, dance and music lessons were paid and optional.

Jazyk súkromnej korešpondencie Anny Márie Sentivániovej

Jazyk súkromnej korešpondencie Anny Márie Sentivániovej
(The Language of Anna Mária Sentiváni's Private Correspondence)

Author(s):Jana Skladaná
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Gender Studies, Communication studies, Modern Age, Culture and social structure , Family and social welfare
Page Range:267-271
No. of Pages:5
Keywords:Anna Mária Sentiváni; language; private correspondence; aristocratic families; social contacts;
Summary/Abstract:The paper analyses the language of 52 letters that Anna Mária Sentiváni wrote to her husband Ján Radvansky. The letters are written in a cultivated Slovak with a strong influence of the central Slovakian dialect. A socio-linguistic analysis reveals that Anna Mária was an educated woman - she wrote the letters herself. This assumption is supported also by the letters contents. Apart from the usual family joys and worries, problems with maintaining and managing the household, they are full of her shrewd, sound and insightful observations that demonstrate her lively interest in various issues. Her social contacts included other aristocratic families and the parish priest. Despite considerable responsibility of her duties she always depended on the opinion and decisions of her husband.

Prostituce v českých zemích: od reglementace k abolici (1852 -1922)

Prostituce v českých zemích: od reglementace k abolici (1852 -1922)
(Prostitution in the Czech Lands: from regulation to Abolition (1852 - 1922))

Author(s):Milena Lenderová
Language:Czech
Subject(s):Gender Studies, History of Law, Recent History (1900 till today), 19th Century
Page Range:272-286
No. of Pages:15
Keywords:Czech; prostitution; regulation; abolition; 19th century; 20th century;
Summary/Abstract:Prostitution or according to a modern definition "having sex with another person for money" has existed since the ancient times. From the Middle Ages up until the 20th century, periods when prostitution flourished followed those when it was forbidden and prosecuted. All these restrictive attempts were doomed to failure and authorities were eventually forced to resign themselves to the existence of the phenomenon. Prostitution can be registered (under the control of police and doctors), clandestine, or tolerated without any legal restriction. There are three key aspects: behaviour of a prostitute/male prostitute that is sexually significant for a client and which leads to the satisfaction of the client s sexual desire, money paid by a client and the third aspect is neutral emotional relation between a prostitute/male prostitute and a client. World of prostitution has all the signs of a marginal society and all the attributes of a social subculture. The attitude of the law to prostitution could take three forms: prohibition, regulation and abolition. Prohibition means that the law criminalized prostitution and prosecuted all those who were involved in it. The author analyses ordinances against prostitution and their effects in a historical perspective - from ancient Rome through the Middle Ages up until the Age of the Enlightenment. On the other hand, regulatory or constrictive policy tolerated prostitution as a necessary evil, but tried to regulate it by creating indispensable boundaries, within which prostitution could take place. It was not legal prostitution, but prostitution that authorities had to put up with. Regulation of prostitution involved setting up new specific institutions, curbing it into certain urban parts or areas and most importantly - getting it under regular police control and medical inspection. Prostitutes were registered at the police and were given health certificates or books, where doctors recorded regular medical examinations. In some countries, these regulations were incorporated into the law. The idea of the modern regulation, the French system, was put into practice for the first time in Paris, shortly before the outbreak of the French revolution. By the end of the 19th century, administrative and medical checkups of prostitutes had been established in most of the European countries. Reaction to the state regulation was the abolition movement, which was against the institutional forms of prostitution. It was based on a false premise that the main guard against prostitution is enlightenment, education, moral principles, alleviation of poverty and better conditions for getting married. The movement developed in the sixties of the 19th century in the Protestant circles in England and Switzerland, together with feminism and spread of women's emancipation One of the proponents of the movement in the Czech lands was Tomas Garrigue Masaryk. In 1919, a parliamentary debate on the bill about prostitution provoked a general discussion. It was the advocates of abolition who emerged victorious from the battle against supporters of state regulation. The law No. 241 called O potirani pohlavmch nem oci (On eradication of Venereal diseases) was passed on l l lhjuly in 1922 as the first abolition law in Central Europe. The problems started when the law was put into practice, because prostitution did not diminish, only became less safe. However inadequate and imperfect the previous police and medical control was, it was better than the complete absence of it. The objective of the law was not fulfilled: the number of people infected by venereal diseases did not decrease as expected, but quite the opposite - the number was on the increase. In the present, the growth of prostitution is the refutation of all the abolitionist arguments Existing situation in the Czech Republic attests to it.

Slovenská žena v Spojených štátoch amerických na konci 19. a začiatku 20. storočia

Slovenská žena v Spojených štátoch amerických na konci 19. a začiatku 20. storočia
(Slovak Women in the United States in the End of the 19th and Beginning of the 20th Century)

Author(s):Marta Dobrotková
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Gender Studies, Economic history, Recent History (1900 till today), Labor relations, Culture and social structure , 19th Century, Migration Studies
Page Range:287-295
No. of Pages:9
Keywords:Slovakia; women; US; 19th century; 20th century; labour relations; migration;
Summary/Abstract:In the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century women were increasingly becoming a part of the working process in industry, cultural sphere and services. In 1900, about one fourth of women was paid labourers and out of them around 90% worked in agriculture, while the rest 8 % in domestic production and trade. Working women had to face lower wages and bad working conditions. Before the mass migration to America in the end of the 19th century/ men used to go and work to other parts of Austria-Hungary or elsewhere in Europe for shorter periods. Women took over responsibility over households for a longer time. Mass migration of men from Slovakia resulted in a decrease of the number of men. The changed demographic situation affected lives of single women in the villages. In the United States, women had much better life conditions and opportunities. American women enjoyed such respect that was unheard of in other countries. American girls working in the factories had several better job options opened to them. Poor women from big cities or wives of immigrants came to their places. The language barrier restricted their opportunities. At first, however, Slovak women did not enjoy such respect as American women. It stemmed from the fact that they came from poor social classes of agricultural workers, daily labourers who worked in mining, metallurgical and engineering industries. Apart from domestic chores, women would help their husbands with their hard work in mines. American public looked with interest at this beha¬viour, but it degraded position of Slovak women. Contempt for Slovak community stemmed from their poor housing habits. The Slovaks called it the burder system, the name originated from boar¬ding houses, hostels of Slovak immigrants. They were wooden one-storey small houses where mar¬ried workers lived on the ground floor and so-called burden or hurdingosi on the first floor. They occupied several rooms without any other furniture but beds. Several or them would sleep on one beds, that were in fact simple wooden bunks. Why did women start to migrate over the ocean? The reason is simple: they did not have anybody to marrv, because all suitable men from their village region, especially from the counties in eastern Slovakia left for the States.American women did not have the best reputation as housewives, therefore they liked to hire maids and servants for domestic works. Hundreds of Slovak girls were employed in textile facto¬ries. First, fraternal and supportive societies and associations were created, followed by national societies and Slovak woinerťs organizations. There were men behind foundation of the first wo¬men’s beneficial societies such as V. P. Rovnianek and Š. Furdek. Slovak women in the USA had deep social empathy and attempted to improve education of their women. By social work they even tried to help the poor in Slovakia. It was also Slovak women religious orders that showed merit in improvement of education of Slovaks in the States, as well as their cultural and religious life. Slovak women in the States felt inadequate and admired representatives of Živena, the Slovak womens beneficial society in Slovakia. They wanted to resemble women from Živena and did not realize that it was also their activities that left significant trace in the life of Slovaks in the United States.

Menný register

Menný register
(Name Registry)

Author(s):Author Not Specified
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Essay|Book Review |Scientific Life, Modern Age, Recent History (1900 till today)
Page Range:296-302
No. of Pages:7

Autori

Autori
(Authors)

Author(s):Author Not Specified
Language:Slovak
Subject(s):Essay|Book Review |Scientific Life
Page Range:303-304
No. of Pages:2

Žena a právo. Právne a spoločenské postavenie žien v minulosti Woman and law. The legal and social status of women in the past

Úvod

Úvod (Introduction)

Život ženy - šl'achtičnej v U horsku na prelome 14. a 15. storocia

Život ženy - šl'achtičnej v U horsku na prelome 14. a 15. storocia (Life of Noble Women in Hungary at the Turn of the 14-15th Centuries)

Žena v systéme Žilinského magdeburského práva

Žena v systéme Žilinského magdeburského práva (Woman and the Magdeburg law system from the town of Žilina)

Podoby ženy v neskorostredovekej spoločnosti (na príklade štyroch šľachtičien z územia Nitrianskej župy)

Podoby ženy v neskorostredovekej spoločnosti (na príklade štyroch šľachtičien z územia Nitrianskej župy) (Four Women Portraits of the Late Medieval Society)

Žena ako subjekt a objekt kriminality v stredovekej Bratislave

Žena ako subjekt a objekt kriminality v stredovekej Bratislave (Woman as a subject and object of crime in the medieval Bratislava)

Žena a zločin vo východoslovenských mestách v 16. storočí. Otázky, pramene, definície

Žena a zločin vo východoslovenských mestách v 16. storočí. Otázky, pramene, definície (Woman and Crime in Upper Hungarian Towns in the 16th century)

Kriminalita žien v poľských mestách v 16.-17. storočí

Kriminalita žien v poľských mestách v 16.-17. storočí (Female criminality in the polish towns in the 16th ~ 17th Centuries)

Život rané novoveké šlechtičny v českém království (právní limity a skutečné možnosti)

Život rané novoveké šlechtičny v českém království (právní limity a skutečné možnosti) (Life of a Noble Woman in the Czech Kingdom in the Early Modern Period (Legal Limits and Opportunities))

Právne postavenie žien v Kluži v 16. storočí

Právne postavenie žien v Kluži v 16. storočí (Legal position of women in Cluj in the 16th century)

Testamenty aristokratických žien v Sedmohradskom kniežatstve

Testamenty aristokratických žien v Sedmohradskom kniežatstve (Last Wills of Noble Women in the Transylvanian Principality)

Vdovy ve šlechtické společnosti raného novoveku

Vdovy ve šlechtické společnosti raného novoveku (Noble Widows in the Early Modern Period)

Žena v pramenech osobní povahy v 17. století

Žena v pramenech osobní povahy v 17. století (Women in Autobiographical Sources of the 17th Century)

Manželstvo a výber partnera v Rakusku v ranom novoveku

Manželstvo a výber partnera v Rakusku v ranom novoveku (Marriage and the choice of one's partner in Austria in the early modern period)

Hospodárenie - netradičná úloha aristokratických žien v ranonovovekom Uhorsku

Hospodárenie - netradičná úloha aristokratických žien v ranonovovekom Uhorsku (Estate management as an unusual occupation of Noble women in Hungary in the early modern period)

Cudzinky v úlohe manželiek uhorských veľmožov v 16.-17. storočí

Cudzinky v úlohe manželiek uhorských veľmožov v 16.-17. storočí (Foreign Wives of Hungarian Aristocrats in the 16 -17th Centuries)

Podnikatelské aktivity samostatných žen v Bardejove v prvé polovine 17. století

Podnikatelské aktivity samostatných žen v Bardejove v prvé polovine 17. století (Economic activities of independent women in Bardejov in the first half of the 17th century)

Násilie páchané na ženách a možnosti obrany v období raného novoveku

Násilie páchané na ženách a možnosti obrany v období raného novoveku (Violence on Women and Protection Possibilities in the Early Modern Period)

Právne a sociálne postavenie poddaných žien

Právne a sociálne postavenie poddaných žien (Legal and Social Position of Serf Women)

Alžbeta Rákócziová a Juraj Erdódy - príbeh strastiplného manželstva z prelomu 17. a 18. storočia

Alžbeta Rákócziová a Juraj Erdódy - príbeh strastiplného manželstva z prelomu 17. a 18. storočia (Elizabeth Rákóczi and George Erdődy. The Story of a Problematic Marriage from the Turn of the 17th and 18th Centuries)

Dievčenské vzdelávanie v Uhorsku

Dievčenské vzdelávanie v Uhorsku (Education of Girls in Hungary)

Materinská starostlivosť a šľachtické vzdelávacie inštitúcie

Materinská starostlivosť a šľachtické vzdelávacie inštitúcie (Maternal Care and Educational Institutions for Nobility)

Kongregácia regulovaných kanonistiek sv. Augustína rehole Notre Dame v Bratislave v 18. storočí

Kongregácia regulovaných kanonistiek sv. Augustína rehole Notre Dame v Bratislave v 18. storočí (Congregation of Regulated St. Augustine nuns of the Notre Dame Order and their Convent in Bratislava in the 18th Century)

Jazyk súkromnej korešpondencie Anny Márie Sentivániovej

Jazyk súkromnej korešpondencie Anny Márie Sentivániovej (The Language of Anna Mária Sentiváni's Private Correspondence)

Prostituce v českých zemích: od reglementace k abolici (1852 -1922)

Prostituce v českých zemích: od reglementace k abolici (1852 -1922) (Prostitution in the Czech Lands: from regulation to Abolition (1852 - 1922))

Slovenská žena v Spojených štátoch amerických na konci 19. a začiatku 20. storočia

Slovenská žena v Spojených štátoch amerických na konci 19. a začiatku 20. storočia (Slovak Women in the United States in the End of the 19th and Beginning of the 20th Century)

Menný register

Menný register (Name Registry)

Autori

Autori (Authors)

Žena a právo. Právne a spoločenské postavenie žien v minulosti
Woman and law. The legal and social status of women in the past

Úvod
(Introduction)

Život ženy - šl'achtičnej v U horsku na prelome 14. a 15. storocia
(Life of Noble Women in Hungary at the Turn of the 14-15th Centuries)

Žena v systéme Žilinského magdeburského práva
(Woman and the Magdeburg law system from the town of Žilina)

Podoby ženy v neskorostredovekej spoločnosti (na príklade štyroch šľachtičien z územia Nitrianskej župy)
(Four Women Portraits of the Late Medieval Society)

Žena ako subjekt a objekt kriminality v stredovekej Bratislave
(Woman as a subject and object of crime in the medieval Bratislava)

Žena a zločin vo východoslovenských mestách v 16. storočí. Otázky, pramene, definície
(Woman and Crime in Upper Hungarian Towns in the 16th century)

Kriminalita žien v poľských mestách v 16.-17. storočí
(Female criminality in the polish towns in the 16th ~ 17th Centuries)

Život rané novoveké šlechtičny v českém království (právní limity a skutečné možnosti)
(Life of a Noble Woman in the Czech Kingdom in the Early Modern Period (Legal Limits and Opportunities))

Právne postavenie žien v Kluži v 16. storočí
(Legal position of women in Cluj in the 16th century)

Testamenty aristokratických žien v Sedmohradskom kniežatstve
(Last Wills of Noble Women in the Transylvanian Principality)

Vdovy ve šlechtické společnosti raného novoveku
(Noble Widows in the Early Modern Period)

Žena v pramenech osobní povahy v 17. století
(Women in Autobiographical Sources of the 17th Century)

Manželstvo a výber partnera v Rakusku v ranom novoveku
(Marriage and the choice of one's partner in Austria in the early modern period)

Hospodárenie - netradičná úloha aristokratických žien v ranonovovekom Uhorsku
(Estate management as an unusual occupation of Noble women in Hungary in the early modern period)

Cudzinky v úlohe manželiek uhorských veľmožov v 16.-17. storočí
(Foreign Wives of Hungarian Aristocrats in the 16 -17th Centuries)

Podnikatelské aktivity samostatných žen v Bardejove v prvé polovine 17. století
(Economic activities of independent women in Bardejov in the first half of the 17th century)

Násilie páchané na ženách a možnosti obrany v období raného novoveku
(Violence on Women and Protection Possibilities in the Early Modern Period)

Právne a sociálne postavenie poddaných žien
(Legal and Social Position of Serf Women)

Alžbeta Rákócziová a Juraj Erdódy - príbeh strastiplného manželstva z prelomu 17. a 18. storočia
(Elizabeth Rákóczi and George Erdődy. The Story of a Problematic Marriage from the Turn of the 17th and 18th Centuries)

Dievčenské vzdelávanie v Uhorsku
(Education of Girls in Hungary)

Materinská starostlivosť a šľachtické vzdelávacie inštitúcie
(Maternal Care and Educational Institutions for Nobility)

Kongregácia regulovaných kanonistiek sv. Augustína rehole Notre Dame v Bratislave v 18. storočí
(Congregation of Regulated St. Augustine nuns of the Notre Dame Order and their Convent in Bratislava in the 18th Century)

Jazyk súkromnej korešpondencie Anny Márie Sentivániovej
(The Language of Anna Mária Sentiváni's Private Correspondence)

Prostituce v českých zemích: od reglementace k abolici (1852 -1922)
(Prostitution in the Czech Lands: from regulation to Abolition (1852 - 1922))

Slovenská žena v Spojených štátoch amerických na konci 19. a začiatku 20. storočia
(Slovak Women in the United States in the End of the 19th and Beginning of the 20th Century)

Menný register
(Name Registry)

Autori
(Authors)