Keywords: early Middle Ages; beginnings of inhumation; initial phase of the cemetery; dating of cemeteries
The fundamental problem in the context of research on the origins of the Polish state is the moment of its emergence in the funeral rite of inhumation. Its reception, according to many researchers, is a material correlate of the beginnings of Christianity. The conventional caesura - after 966 - is marked here by the baptism date of Mieszko I, the first historical ruler of Poland. Unsettled the question remains whether and to what extent his subjects followed in the prince's footsteps and to whom in the first place this new funeral custom concerned. The author on selected examples taken from both contemporary and medieval observations cemeteries illustrates the complex issue of dating the oldest early medieval cemeteries in Poland Polish. At the same time, he draws attention to inference errors, especially when separating their initial phases. On this sub-pond states that the thesis according to which in humation appears on Polish lands only after the year 1000 requires a critical verification.
More...Keywords: early Middle Ages; funeral rite; inhumation; Central Poland; Lubień
The cemetery in Lubień belongs to the group of the oldest early medieval inhumation necropolises in Poland Central. According to the authors' findings, the cemetery in Lubień was established in the first quarter of the 11th century is important for considering the problem of the beginnings of inhumation in Poland at that time. Destruction of the central part of the establishment burial ground, which is also assumed to be the location of the first burials, seriously hinders drawing conclusions in a binding manner about its initial phase. The analysis of the archaeological material indicates that the time of the most intensive use of this place fell on the second half of 11th century, although members of the local community were buried there until the third quarter of the 12th century. Only the few products of material culture (numismatic items, earrings with a triangular bead, a ceramic vessel) allow us to wonder whether the cemetery was established at the end of the 10th century. New light on the beginnings of the necropolis and inhumation in this area may be shed by research biological material using absolute dating methods.
More...Keywords: Sandomierz; early Middle Ages; elite graves
In the years 2013–2015, the oldest part of the skeletal cemetery, which functioned in the 11th century on the so-called Town Hill in Sandomierz. Some of the graves dated to the end of the 10th and/or the beginning of the 11th century are in form and applied funeral ritual similar to the so-called chamber graves. They contained above-standard, as for the conditions Lesser Poland, equipment (including clay pots, an axe, horseshoe clasps, a set for striking fire). Forms of graves and equipment suggest foreign origin of some of the deceased, which is also confirmed by the results of specialist analyses on the content of strontium isotopes. Noteworthy is the relatively large number of "eastern" elements in the equipment of the dead: an ax (axe), a key reused as a flint, horseshoe clasps, whorls. Taking into account the dating of the graves and their forms and equipment, it can be assumed that we are dealing with elite burials belonging to people whose at least some of them came to Sandomierz from outside, probably representing the Piast rule. They could have been newcomers from Wielkopolska, however, it cannot be ruled out that - especially in the case of the deceased from grave 9 - we are dealing with a Varangian - Rus in the service of one of the first two historical rulers of the Piast dynasty. These graves gave rise to it probably the oldest necropolis in Sandomierz, used by its inhabitants deep into the 11th century.
More...Keywords: biritualism; burial grounds of the Bilczew type; early Middle Ages; Greater Poland
In recent years, three biritual cemeteries described as the Bilczew type have been discovered in the vicinity of Konin: Bilczew, commune of Kramsk, commune loco, and Kwiatków, commune Brudzew. This group also includes one archival cemetery at Konin, commune loco, which requires new interpretation and reanalysis. These sites are of special significance because continuity in the use of the necropolis after a change of religion, and therefore of the funeral rite, has been recorded there. It is a phenomenon that has not been noted in Greater Poland so far. The text presents and discusses most fully the cemetery at Bilczew, as it is the best recognised and published necropolis of this type to date. As a result of the excavation works, the entire preserved part of the site was examined, revealing 102 early medieval pit cremation graves and 27 skeletal ones, as well as one undetermined pit. The other cemeteries of this type were examined only by digging test pits (Kramsk), or the results of their excavations were initially misinterpreted (Konin). The largest of the recently explored cemeteries of this type (Kwiatków), where 127 cremation graves, 143 skeletal graves and 10 cenotaphs were discovered, awaits study and publication.
More...Keywords: Early Middle Ages; Chełmno Land; Kałdus; cemetery; inhumation; chronology; radiocarbon dates
The subject of this article are the beginnings of the oldest early medieval necropolis located under the mountain St. Lawrence in Kałdus. Its creation coincided with the period of building the Polish state and accompanying this process Christianization, which was expressed in the eschatological dimension by inhumation. In the case of Kałdus, it was considered the earliest chamber graves, which were to initiate the development of the first necropolis, which was then used by several generations of residents resort in Culmine. Among the issues that have been given the most attention in this place, they come to the fore Two issues arise: 1) the genesis of inhumation in the Chełmno region and 2) the moment when it began to be used.
More...Keywords: early Middle Ages; funerary archaeology; burials with equestrian equipment; chronology radiocarbon
Cemetery in Lutomiersk, explored by Konrad Jażdżewski's team in the 1940s and 1950s, published by Andrzej Nadolski, Andrzej Abramowicz and Tadeusz Poklewski in 1959, continues to be the object of interest generations of archaeologists. This is undoubtedly one of the most important funeral sites from the first period the Piast monarchy. Publication by Ryszard Grygiel of new data in the form of radiocarbon dating for parts graves from Lutomiersk, allows us to resume the discussion on its dating. Using Bayesian modeling radiocarbon dates, analysis of burial equipment and the spatial structure of the cemetery, it is proposed to provide more detail here dating and interpretation of the development of the burial space. The presented findings are of a working nature and testify, above all, to the still significant research potential of this site.
More...Keywords: Middle Ages; inhumation; chamber graves; radiocarbon dating
The author discusses the results of determining the age of the bones of skeletons buried with the use of the radiocarbon method chamber graves from the area of the early Piast state. The test samples were taken directly from the skeletons and in most cases issued using the AMS method. Radiocarbon dating showed that most of the tested burials came from the second half of 10th century and the reign of Mieszko I. So these people lived and worked during his rule, too they died and were buried during his reign. Two of the examined graves can be related to the beginning of the 11th century, that is, until the reign of Bolesław the Brave. The obtained results of 14C dating indicate that the beginnings are associated with Christianity inhumation in Poland can be associated with the second half of the 19th century. 10th century, with the reign of Mieszko I. At that time, the first one was founded skeletal cemeteries, which in many cases were used continuously until the end of the 12th or the beginning of the 13th century.
More...Keywords: funeral rite; skeletal burials; chronology; Middle Ages; Poland
Until recently, the intuitive conviction prevailed that a departure from the centuries-old eschatological tradition, which required cremation of the corpse, took place shortly after the baptism of Mieszko I in 966. In this way, archaeologically confirmed the belief of medieval chroniclers that the conversion of the ruler resulted in the rapid Christianization of his subjects. Meanwhile from the time of his reign (before 963–992) there are no (except for Poznań) reliable evidence of a change in the funeral rite. The current dating of the oldest skeletal burials allows this change to be placed only in the last decade of the 10th century, that is already in the times of Bolesław the Brave. This means that our first historical ruler was not archaeologically visible successes in enforcing the Christian way of burying the dead.
More...Keywords: coins; graves; cemeteries; dating
Coins are the best dater of any artifact discovered in archaeological contexts. The time of circulation must be added to the date of creation of the coins. Coin dating is also more precise than that using 14C radioactive carbon analysis. The earliest, but only sporadic, coins appear in graves at Silesia (Germany). They are more common in cemeteries in Wielkopolska (Dziekanowice, Sowinki), Kujawy (Bodzia) and Gdańsk Pomerania (Kałdus, Warm). The beginnings of depositing these coins in graves can be assessed for a period not earlier than the last quarter of the 10th century, and more certainly for the years 990–1000. This corresponds to the beginning of Bolesław's reign Brave (992–1025), i.e. a quarter of a century after the adoption of Christianity. Has this rite existed in Poland before, finally the reign of Mieszko I cannot be ruled out. For now, however, there are no numismatic arguments for this. We also don't know whether there were earlier skeletal graves, which, however, did not contain coins.
More...Keywords: democracy; emotions; anger; illiberal democracy; capabilities
Liberal democracy is recognized today as a legitimate political system almost across the entire world. However, it is not an ideal model, but a political process taking place before our eyes. The author argues that the concept of illiberal democracy, which appeared recently in political discussions, seems to consolidate and petrify a certain moment within the democratic process, whereas the latest research on collective emotions as a factor for political change, has turned out to be more helpful in understanding the nature of it. An analysis of the formation of negative emotions in the works of Martha Nussbaum has allowed for the development of methods which will transform them in such a way that they do not lead to the destruction of the democratic state. Thus, although contemporary political philosophy does not provide recommendations for particular governments, the analysis of emotions affects collective political thinking, and contributes to the peaceful course of political changes in democratic societies.
More...Keywords: Cosmopolitanism; identity; community; globalization; politics
Modern Cosmopolitism is good to build questions concerning the institutionalization of the new kind of citizens’ identity around it. This is the identity which goes far beyond citizens’ sense of belonging to a national, racial or ethnic group, which transcends the bonds of blood and land, the identity determined by choice not by birth. In the article I explore different approaches to the idea and conception of Cosmopolitanism. I try to establish whether and how a project of new social essence emerges from a globalizing economy and lax communities built around the sense of unity of lifestyle, local and above-local relationships that transcend the frames of politics.
More...Keywords: privacy; privacy protection; political value of privacy; autonomy; liberalism
According to one of the most influential privacy theories , privacy protects individual autonomy: the exercise of autonomy requires detachment from social and political life and privacy facilitates it. This view of privacy presupposes a tension between privacy and society and is responsible for underrating privacy in legal and political practice. I argue that we should understand autonomy as politically embedded. On the contrary, privacy has a political value: when we claim privacy, we do not make a claim to withdraw from political life, but rather to protect certain forms of political engagement. Such view of privacy provides a solid basis for its protection than the traditional view prevailing in current legal practice and political discourse.
More...Keywords: civility; polish; political culture; political liberalism; John Rawls
Civility is treated as the main liberal virtue by one of the most important political philosophers of the 20th century, John Rawls. In this interpretation, liberalism requires not only institutions, but also a specific attitude of citizens and the political culture that shapes such attitudes. Political coexistence with citizens who did not share beliefs about a good life became an imperative. Rawls pointed out that the solution is civility, which requires participants in the public sphere to conduct the discussion in such a way as to obtain consent. Civility characterizes citizens who are ready to seek what they have in common with people who hold different views. Politics, however, can be dominated by corporations and capital, which distort public deliberations and discussions, and has an element of contradiction of interests and the pursuit of economic domination, and is also threatened by emotions resulting from attachment to certain religious and philosophical doctrines. It is difficult to say if the duty of civility is a sufficient safeguard.
More...Keywords: Hegel; myślenie republikańskie; system filozoficzny Hegla; dziedzictwo Arystotelesa; Kant; synteza Heglowska
More...Keywords: Sebastian Petrycy from Pilzno; category of justice; social philosophy; Polish Renaissance
The article is an analysis of the virtue of justice as perceived by Sebastian Petrycy from Pilzno. Petrycy demanded social justice in the relation of the nobility to the plebeians. He did not agree to the treatment of peasants as slaves. He demanded judicial justice - desiring to repair the state. He warned the nobility against the consequences of the injustice they had committed.
More...Keywords: civic philosophy; civic education; public welfare; pro-social attitude; pro-state position; civic virtues
The idea of civic education, being distinctly exposed in the Enlightenment period, has its origin in the 16th and 17th centuries, in the so called Old Polish times. It was in writings from these centuries that the social-political thought took the prominent place. It was in these times when the ideas defined as civic philosophy which undertook and developed the issue of civic education, the need for pro-social and pro-state attitude formation appeared for the first time in the philosophical and social thought. At the time, the issue of the Republic’s salvation, its institutions, public welfare and its dangers, the principle of justice and many relevant issues were the predominant matter of discussions. We recall the animators and protagonists of discussions in which the civic education was addressed. This issue was undertaken by outstanding representatives of Polish philosophical and socio-political thought, including Andrzej Frycz-Modrzewski, Stanisław Orzechowski, Marycjusz Szymon from Pilzno, Łukasz Górnicki, Piotr Skarga, Sebastian Petrycy from Pilzno, Szymon Starowolski, Andrzej Maksymilian Fredro. Their thinking, as well as the opinions of some less celebrated but numerous participants of the discussion are recalled here with a belief, that at least some of the propositions, recommendations and demands raised at that time go beyond merely historical perspective.
More...Keywords: hunger; global justice; global food distribution; poverty; realism; idealism
The article compares two paradigms – realistic and idealistic in the field of international theories of political economy, and their approach to poverty. I will describe what kind of strategies in alleviating poverty result from these two theoretical approaches. The analysis will be presented within the framework of the discussion on global distributive justice. Thus, I will first provide a brief description of both paradigms - focusing on the axiological and institutional aspects of them, so that the reader can later better understand the approach of these two paradigms to the ways to prevent poverty (1); afterwards, I will briefly reconstruct the history of food production and its international changes to show how the two paradigms differently interpret the processes taking place in the world (2); later, I will present how both paradigms describe and understand the causes of poverty (3) and finally, I will present the conclusions that I draw from the comparison of these two models (4).
More...Keywords: Polish philosophy; language; vocabulary; translation
The text presents selected difficulties ("wciórności") encountered by philosophers who think in their native (Polish) language. To illustrate the problem, I give examples: the metaphors of the lamus/granary (a forgotten and unused resource of a vocabulary), a widnokrąg/horizon (as an example of an untranslatable term), a prowizorka/makeshift (an example of a translatable word, but with a specific native etymology and related semantic contexts) and przyjaźń/friendship (word that provides subtle meanings, unrecognized in other languages). The conclusion is the postulate to cultivate what is unique and specific in the native language without disregarding the requirements of a dialogue with a foreign-language thought.
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