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Золотоордынский Биляр

Author(s): Svetlana I. Valiulina / Language(s): Russian Publication Year: 0

The article presents the results of the first studies on one of the early Mongol towns in Eastern Europe — the Golden Horde Bilyar. Rescue excavations on the site were carried out by the expedition of Kazan State University in 1994—1998. The researchers established that the town originated from scratch, almost out of touch with the pre-Mongol cultural tradition. The rich material culture of the site illustrates the initial stage in cultural development of the Golden Horde in the Middle Volga region, and its main ethno-cultural components based on pottery and stucco ceramics. Highly artistic works illustrate the conquerors’ progress into the Middle Volga area. Products by masters from Central Asia and the Middle East, together with numismatics data, specify the period of existence of this town: 1240s — first half of the 14th century.

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Кузькинский мордовский могильник конца XIII—XIV в.: к истории населения правобережья Самарского Поволжья в эпоху Золотой Орды

Author(s): Dmitriy A. Stashenkov / Language(s): Russian Publication Year: 0

The article addresses studies on the burial ground of the late 13th—14th century in the Volga region near Samara. The funerary rite and objects from 16 burials find analogies in the Muranka, Barbashinsky, and Usinsky burial grounds, associated mainly with the Mordovian groups. The appearance of large Mordovian burial grounds in the Middle Volga region is conditioned by the policy of economic development of the Volga region, pursued by the Golden Horde administration. The chronological framework of the archaeological objects studied in the region with the Mordovian ethno-cultural component — late 13th — middle of the 14th centuries. There is no evidence to support the existence of these sites after 1360s — the beginning of the “Great troubles” period in the Horde.

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Арабографичные надписные камни из раскопок Казанского кремля 2000-х гг.

Author(s): Aydar M. Gaynutdinov,Ayrat G. Sitdikov,Аndrey S. Starkov / Language(s): Russian Publication Year: 0

Medieval epigraphs written in Arabic and found in the Middle Volga region provide some very important historical evidence for any student of the regional history. For they preserved an important page of the medieval written culture. The authors address a corpus of Arabic inscriptions made on stones in the first half of the 16th century, identified during the excavations on the territory of the Kazan Kremlin in the early 2000s. Fragments of stones stored in the Museum of Archaeology (Institute of Archaeology, Academy of Sciences, Republic of Tatarstan) contain some fragments of texts in Arabic, including fragments of words and some separate letters. The paper describes the context in which these inscriptions were revealed and offers a reading of the texts on stones. Specific usages of these stones are suggested. Some fragments could be architectural elements.

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Религиозный и этнический состав населения Укека. К вопросу об этноконфессиональной топографии городища

Author(s): Dmitry A. Kubankin / Language(s): Russian Publication Year: 0

Multinational population of the Golden Horde towns used to practice various religions. To a certain extent, this diversity may be traced in the material culture of Ukek. Islamic necropolises and occasional cult-related items are indicative of the large number of Muslims and of their presence in the town as early as in the 13th century. Some Mordovians could have been islamized. The objects of the Christian cult are concentrated mostly in the southern part of the settlement, in the whereabouts of the Christian quarter. Substantial amounts of the Old Russian ceramics are encountered there, minor amounts of Mordovian and Italian pottery occur invariably. Items associated with pagan rites are scarce. Those are dated back not just to the 13th century, but to the second half of the 14th century, as well. Small amount of the Old Russian and Mordovian crockery and ceramics of the Finno-Ugrians from the Kama region was found in various parts of the town.

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Особенности топографии и застройки Багаевского селища

Author(s): Leonard Fedorovich Nedashkovsky,Marat Bayazitovich Shigapov / Language(s): Russian Publication Year: 0

The article aims to characterize the topography of the Golden Horde Bagaevka settlement, which is situated in the Saratov District of the Saratov Oblast. The settlement was included in the past in the region of the Golden Horde city Ukek and existed in the second half of the 13th — 14th century. Special attention is paid to trench I, works on which were conducted in 2002—2003, 2007—2012 and 2014—2016. Such questions as use of the discovered structures, distribution of separate categories of finds in them, including numismatic materials (which are dated in general from the last quarter of the 13th century to 1360/1361 AD), the imports and artefacts associated with presence of various ethnic groups on the site are addressed.

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Административно-территориальная структура области Сарай (дельта р. Волга)

Author(s): Evgeniy M. Pigarev / Language(s): Russian Publication Year: 0

The article is devoted to the administrative-territorial structure of the political center of a Golden Horde region (vilayet) known as Sarai, which was located in the Delta of the Volga River. Research history of the largest towns and their environs is discussed. The administrative units are characterized in accordance with the chronology of historical events. The life span of the settlements and the stages in their development are determined through analysis and comparison of archaeological, numismatic and written data. The process of urbanization in the region is linked to the changes in the level of the Caspian Sea. Suggestions are made about the location of the first capital of Jochi Ulus (the city of Sarai) and the name of Krasny Yar town.

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Комплекс золотоордынских памятников у пос. Красный Бобровского района Воронежской области

Author(s): Mikhail V. Tcybin,Nikolay M. Savitskiy / Language(s): Russian Publication Year: 0

The article offers materials of research on the complex of the Golden Horde sites found near Krasnyi village, Bobrov District of the Voronezh Oblast. The complex included the remains of two mausoleums, a settlement, and a kiln for firing bricks. Mausoleum 1 and the kiln were studied by V. P. Levasheva in 1948. Here the main attention focuses on the results of excavations in mausoleum 2, conducted by the expedition of the Voronezh State University in 1989 and 2002. The dimensions of the mausoleum are 21,5×10,5 m. It belongs to a rare in the Golden Horde type of two-chamber rectangular mausoleums with a wide pishtak. The architectural decor of the mausoleum finds analogies among the materials of the Selitrennoe settlement on the Lower Volga. The crypt in the mausoleum was intended for interment of aristocratic members of the nomadic ulus in the Middle Don region. The complex under consideration is not the remains of an urban settlement.

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Локализация комплекса из урочища Гашун-Уста (Ставропольская губерния, 1890 г.) и выделение золотоордынских владений в Центральном Предкавказье

Author(s): Vitaly A. Babenko / Language(s): Russian Publication Year: 0

The article analyzes materials of the Kumo-Manych expedition, 1860—1861, that allow you to specify the localization of the Gashun-Usta stow on the territory of the Stavropol Governorate. In 1890, the expedition found a belt garniture and a belt-bowl, dated by Mengu-Timur’s time.The Gashun-Usta stow is localized in the vicinity of the Basanta village, Arzgirsky district, Stavropol region in the basin of the Chogray river (North-Eastern slopes of the Stavropol Upland), known for its numerous burials of the Golden Horde. It was the area for summer and winter pastures of the medieval nomads, and it can be associated with G. de Rubruk’s accounts on Bеrke’s encampments.

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Находки половецких каменных изваяний как источник по изучению географии половецких кочевий степного Прикубанья

Author(s): Yuriy V. Zelenskiy / Language(s): Russian Publication Year: 0

The author reviews places where Polovtsian stone sculptures were found on the territory of the Kuban steppe and Eastern Trans-Kuban. First statues were delivered to the Museum in the late nineteenth century, and are still delivered nowadays. Before the revolution, there was no regular reporting about original locations of such finds. In 1950s — early 21st century, statues were brought from villages located on the territory of the Central steppe area in the middle Kuban area and Eastern Trans-Kuban. Finds of the Polovtsian stone sculptures are a valuable source on the geography of the Polovtsian nomadic camps in the Kuban basin.

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Адыгская керамика из археологических памятников XIII—XV веков в фондах Государственного музея Востока

Author(s): Ludmila M. Noskova / Language(s): Russian Publication Year: 0

The article discusses a small collection of ceramics of 13th—15th centuries from the excavations of the Caucasian archaeological expedition of the State Museum of Oriental Art in Adygea and on the Eastern Black sea coast of the Caucasus. Most of the pottery comes from the Shendjiy kurgan cemetery (Adygea) and Kabardinka kurgan cemetery (near Gelendzhik). Several vessels were found on the banks of the Krasnodar water reservoir, where late medieval funerary sites are situated. The material divides into two groups: one originates from the left bank of the Kuban river, and the other one from the Black Sea region. Vessels come in different forms, mostly jugs and mugs. All the vessels are made of red clay, which is typical for Adygea ceramics of the Golden Horde time made with the help of potter’s wheel of slow rotation. Most of the jars in the second group have a rim in the shape of oenochoe, with spout on the side or opposite the handle, which is a feature of vessels from the Black Sea region, never found on the left bank of the Kuban River. At the same time, jugs with tubular spout — an imitation of metal jugs — appear among the ceramic finds. In general, ceramic forms represented in the collections of the Museum of the Oriental Art complement the main types of vessels, common in the North-Western Caucasus in the 14th—15th centuries.

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Два захоронения воинов-кочевников ХIII—ХIV вв. из Северо-Восточного Причерноморья (к истории формирования комплекса вооружения Золотой Орды)

Author(s): Alexander V. Dmitriev,Evgeniy I. Narozhny / Language(s): Russian Publication Year: 0

The article introduces two new and previously unpublished burial places for nomadic warriors from the burial mound “Molokanova Shchel” (near the village of Praskoveevka — Gelendzhik, Krasnodar Krai). Both burials of 35—45 year-old men were accompanied by certain sets of weapons — quiver kits, sabers and a spearhead. One of them contained a helmet composed of 4 parts and an ax; the other one contained the remains of a wooden shield with metal parts. Determining the dating of both complexes in the framework of the Golden Horde time, the authors dwell in detail on the attribution of the helmet and the remnants of the shield, linking their appearance in the Northeast Black Sea Coast with the resettlement here of the black hoods from the Southern Russia in 1260s. This raises the question of the need to take into account the contribution of the “pre-Mongol” Eastern European nomads, trapped inside the Golden Horde along with much of their traditional material culture, in modern disputes about the sources of armament of the population of the Golden Horde.

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Топография городских могильников золотоордынского Азака и их влияние на общегородскую планировку

Author(s): Andrei Nikolaevich Maslovskiy / Language(s): Russian Publication Year: 0

Excavations of Azak are held in every district of the town. That is why now it is possible to study some questions of planigraphy of this Golden Horde town. The paper lists and locates 38 so far discovered necropolis sites of 13th—14th centuries. Briefly, the origin of these sites is also offered. Mapping of the objects shows a certain logic in their location. In fact, there are two chains of necropolises almost fully surrounding the town. The necropolises in each chain appeared almost simultaneously. Both arcs of necropolises, apparently, were a result of an administrative policy, which intended to move them outside of the habitable districts. But due to rapid growth of the town in the first half of the 14th century, the necropolises in the earlier internal arc got surrounded by residential estates. Thus, the second arc of necropolises was the result of this process.

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Новые данные по исторической географии золотоордынских поселений Нижнего Подонья и Северо-Восточного Приазовья

Author(s): Alexander P. Minaev,Nikita I. Iudin / Language(s): Russian Publication Year: 0

Settlements located in the North-Eastern Azov and Lower Don basin are of great interest for the study of trade and economic relations in 13th—14th cc. both with the center of the region, which was the Azak, and between rural sites. During the analysis of the material obtained from the settlements, it is possible to determine the nature of the settlement: whether it was a small town or a rural center, as well as to imagine the degree of involvement of each settlement in trade activities, and to give an overall picture of the development of commodity relations in the region.

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Средневековые поселения на территории Донецких степей

Author(s): Eduard E. Kravchenko / Language(s): Russian Publication Year: 0

The work considers the history of medieval settlements in the steppe between the Dnieper and the Don. It includes the lands of the Donetsk Ridge, the Northern Azov Sea, and the buffer zone between the steppe and the forest-steppe in the middle reaches of the river Severskiy Donets. Steppe open spaces throughout the Middle Ages were the habitat of nomads. In periods of stability, when these lands were part of large state entities, settlements appeared on some of their plots near roads. These roads crossed the steppes in the latitudinal direction, which was connected with the cultural ties of the region, in which the Crimea, the Northern Caucasus and the Lower Dnieper Basin played a prominent role.In the buffer zone, settlements existed during the entire Middle Ages. In the Khazar and Golden Horde times large trade and craft centers grew in the contact zone between the steppe and the forest-steppe. In these settlements, there was also an administration that led the life of the nomadic steppe. The defeat at the end of the 14th century led to the complete collapse of the settled way of life in the region, after which nomadic hordes dominated the lands for two centuries.In this way, the natural factor, cultural and economic traditions, the existence of trade communications and the political situation played an important role in formation of medieval settlements in the Donetsk steppes. The most developed regions were those with long-standing traditions of settled life style.

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Культовая архитектура золотоордынского Крыма: версия Э. Д. Зиливинской

Author(s): Vladimir P. Kirilko / Language(s): Russian Publication Year: 0

In her monograph Golden Horde Architecture. Part I. Cult Architecture (Kazan: Otechestvo, 2014), E. D. Zilivinskaya focuses on the Crimean sites. Along with a presentation of buildings from the main regions of Jochi’s Ulus, there searcher also communicates some separate data about mosques, minarets, madrasah, mausoleums and Christian churches on the peninsula, which are often obsolete, distorted or unreliable. The Crimean content of the monograph is based on some scarce sources, while numerous relevant archival materials and publications seem to be unknown to the author. Frequent mistakes in comments to illustrations and an attempt to offer for scientific discussion some blueprints with false graphic information about plans and orientation of the buildings should be treated as some serious shortcomings of this work. In spite of the obvious relevance of this research, an overview of the cult architecture of the Golden Horde Crimea, which is offered in this monograph, should be examined rather critically and requires a review of almost all published data.

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Историческая география крымских территорий Генуэзской Газарии (1275—1475 гг.)

Author(s): Sergei Gennadievich Bocharov / Language(s): Russian Publication Year: 0

The article primarily focuses on the historical geography of the Crimean territories of the Genoese Gazaria. The Genoese Gazaria is the totality of the Genoese possessions on the lands of the Golden Horde, especially in the coastal areas of the Northern Black Sea, where the medieval toponym “Gazaria” was used to embrace the whole state of the Golden Horde. In general, there were no clear state borders in the Genoese Gazaria: those were coastal zones under the rule of the khans of the Golden Horde, where the Genoese would be given separate quarters in the cities and would enjoy autonomous rights, or would establish their settlements on the coast. The Crimean peninsula was an exception in this system, there the Genoese settled a whole system of cities and rural districts, with clear political and administrative borders. The domain of the Genoese on the Crimean peninsula developed into independent political and administrative system during a long and gradual process, which took a hundred years: from the origin of the main regional center in Caffa (around 1275) to 1387. The author addresses historical geography of the various administrative parts of the Genoese Gazaria on the Crimean peninsula: the rural district of Caffa, Consulates of Soldaia, Cembalo and Vosporo, and possessions on the Southern Coast of the Crimea, the Kerch Peninsula and the Tarkhankut Peninsula. He also analyzes findings of a study into the historical topography of the four fortified Genoese cities — Caffa, Soldaia, Cembalo and Vosporo.

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Консульский замок генуэзской крепости Чембало XIV—XV вв. (по материалам археологических раскопок 1999—2008 гг.)

Author(s): Serhiy V. Dyachkov / Language(s): Russian Publication Year: 0

In 1999―2008, the joint expedition of “Tauric Chersonesos” National Reserve and by “V. N. Karazin” National University in Kharkiv investigated the area of the consul’s residence (castle) of the Genoese fortress Cembalo (14th—15th centuries) in Balaklava was located. Excavations on the so-called “consul’s church” found on the territory of the consul’s residence discovered that the church was used by inhabitants as a burial vault. Excavations of tower no.8 and in the adjacent area give some reasons to believe that the tower was part of the fortress’s defensive structures. While digging on site B situated near tower no. 8 we found chamber 3 (constructed in late 15th—16th centuries). The walls of chamber 3 were made of stone shells of predominantly spherical shape. This ‘arsenal’ included 208 shells that weighed 20―104 kg each, which were meant to be used by trebuchet machines against enemy ships. A special platform for trebuchet was constructed on consul’s residence territory. During the excavations of 2007―2008, remains of iron lamellar armor were discovered on the platform. Some peculiarities and circumstances of the find allow us to suppose that the discovered details were fragments of a brigandine, an armor widely spread in the 14th—15th centuries. The armor could belong to an arbalester of the local garrison. So, the Consul’s Castle was the residence of some Genoese official and an important element of the defensive system of the fortress Cembalo.

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Burma in China’s Foreign Policy: the consequences of the ‘Burmese thaw’ for China-Myanmar relations

Author(s): Michał Lubina / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

This paper gives an insight into Chinese-Burmese relations, focusing on important factors that have had an impact today. Firstly, it recaps the history of China and Burma. Secondly, it shows China’s two main reasons of engagement in Myanmar: the foreign one (the Malacca Dilemma) and the domestic one (the Western Development Strategy). Thirdly, it will summarize the consequences of Western sanctions on Myanmar. Fourthly, it shows the importance of Chinese influence on the present-day domestic situation in Burma. Fifthly, it presents the circumstances of the “Burmese thaw”. Finally, it providesan explanation on Burma’s importance in Chinese foreign policy and the implications of recent political changes in Myanmar for Chinese-Burmese relations.

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Expected Future Trends in Chinese Outward Direct Investment in Africa

Author(s): Nóra Szikorová / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

This paper presents an analysis of Chinese outward direct investments in Africa and projection of future investment flows. The motives that have led to a noticeable increase of these investments in Africa in the last 3 years were both based on the expansion to new markets and on cost minimization. The determinants associated with these motives in Africa are both primary commodity import, size of arable land, GDP, rule of law and trade relations.

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China’s Civil Aviation at the Beginning of the 21st Century – Can Europe Remain Competitive?

Author(s): Martin Grančay / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

The paper is divided into six sections. After a brief introduction it provides a simple statistical comparison of selected civil aviation indicators in China and in the USA. The next three sections deal with the state of the three pillars of aviation in China; that is airports, airlines and aircraft production, as compared to the European Union. The final section provides conclusions about whether and how the European air transportation sector can remain competitive.

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