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K. Ziegler’s supposition whether Spartacus descended from Thracian’s tribe or not doesn’t practically have any grounds. Plutarch knew for certain that the greatest chief came from a nomad tribe. More over the name of Spartacus itself, without any doubt, is of Thracian origin. The image of a leader of a supposedly slave’s rebellion in ancient Italy is perceived as a famous novel’s character. However, the scientific research permits to apprehend some information about Spartacus in a different way. «The revolution» of Spartacus is the final echo of an allied war. It explains the fact that his army didn’t have any desire to leave Italy and also explains his attempts to start the negotiations and conclude peace on good terms. Getting a civil status as well as Catilina’s conspiracy is the main idea of this movement. Spartacus and Catilina’s last supporters died simultaneously long after their leaders’ death. Spartacus wasn’t a slave. Being a chief at the Roman auxiliary horse military detachment he found himself at gladiator’s school where roman warriors were taken to for committing war crimes or defeats. The gladiators were not only the participants of popular roman entertainments but sometimes they could be used as policemen or auxiliary service. Only in the inner discords in Roman Republic they were seldom used as a special detachment. Spartacus started his activity by organizing a military mutiny in Capua then he formed his army with the citizens of Italy who tried to become closer with their status to the citizens of Rome. The Romans defeated the Italics who supported Spartacus and Catilina but in spite of the Romans’ victory many of the Italics got the civil status. The Romans remembered Spartacus as a barbarian who wanted to be in contact with them as equal. In the roman’s history there were several chiefs of barbarian’s auxiliary forces. In the emperor’s period the barbarians little by little became the basis of the roman’s army. Spartacus was one of the first mercenaries in roman’s service, and that’s why he was well aware of all the peculiarities of the best army of the world of those times. More over he appeared to be a hereditary mercenary and a professional cavalry man which helped him to find the tactic alternative to the unconquerable roman’s infantry. He also knew the theatre of war in Italy not worse than the Romans themselves and that meant a lot. The local inhabitants sympathized with him as his army didn’t behave as conquerors. Only the Odryses and the Getae from Thracians tribes had great horse troops, but the Getae lived a nomad life. Marcus Licinius Crassus’s grand son was the first from the Romans who broke through the future Moesia. Before the battle in the region of future Ratiaria he was watching the ritual of a horse killing which he executed later before the battle of Brundisium. In that battle Spartacus tried to strike the roman chiefs and kill Crassus but the grand son of a possibly imaginary winner preferred to fight himself and win in a single combat with an enemy chief. The name of Spartacus became the symbol of a barbarian as it was known from Thracia. The first «warrior» emperor of Rome Maximinus Thrax governed in 235–238 AC. He descended from the Getae and reminded to the Romans somewhat of Spartacus. The officer-cavalry man who came from Thracia and descended from a nomad tribe gives us a hint that Spartacus descended from the Getae.
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The paper refers to the Bulgarian-Cuman relations during the reign of tsar Boril. According to many researchers, the deteriorated Bulgarian-Cuman relations resulted from the Bulgarian-Hungarian and Bulgarian-Latin alliance after 1214. For the most part, these conclusions sound logical, but at the same time a question related to the limited involvement of Cumans in Boril’s campaigns after 1211 arises. Contrary to researchers who focus on the South and the Bulgarian-Latin conflict, the author seeks a solution to the problem by analysing events to the North, reaching the lands of the Burzenland region in Eastern Transylvania. He analyses the Teutonic-Cuman conflict of 1211–1222, and the success of the Teutons in Cumania after 1215. Finally, the author concludes that the dramatic change in the Bulgarian- Cuman relations could be explained by a new source of military and political influence that emerged in the second decade of the 13th century – The Teutonic Order.
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The portrait of a young Bulgarian Boyar, called Areta, who was presumably a relative of a caesar or sebastokrator, was painted in St. Nicholas Church of Stanichene village in 1331–1332. This article aims at analyzing and reconstructing her beautifully intricate clothing. The history of some of its elements, such as the head-adornment, is difficult to trace. The origin of others may be determined with more certainty; for example, the pattern of one of her shirts is of Byzantine origin and the hanging sleeves of her upper dress come from a tradition dating back to the First Bulgarian Empire. The combination of its three different sleeves can be found only in two more pictorial sources, both from the former territories of Bulgaria and Serbia. Therefore, it is presumed that her costume reflects a local Balkan fashion which emerged during the Second Bulgarian Empire.
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The paper discussed four episodes from the medieval Serbian past when personalunions’ concept formed the basis for resolving complex regional diplomatic relations. The first two dates in King Milutin’s (1282–1321) and Stephen Dečanski`s (1321–1331) reigns. In both instances,the unification proposals came from Bulgaria. Furthermore, Sigismund von Luxembourg (1387–1437) acquired in 1394 the right to receive the Bosnian royal crown. With the decline of Hungarian influence in Bosnia, the prospects of realizing this bold plan lost momentum. The last case examines the prevailing circumstances that led to establishing a short-lived personal union between Bosnia and the Serbian Despotate 1458/1459.
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The main goal of this study is to create a source for researchers and interpreters who would perform Ludwig van Beethoven’s first written Violoncello-Piano sonata Op. No. 1 No. 5 and his last written violoncello-piano sonata Op. 102 No. 2. In this study, innovations which Beethoven brought to violoncello-piano sonata form are identified. Information is given concerning the life and works of Ludwig van Beethoven and the influences of Beethoven on the violoncello-piano sonata form are discussed. Beethoven's cello-piano sonatas have a very important place in both instrument repertoires. This importance is undoubtedly based on Beethoven's unique musical language and the revolutionary changes which he made in the sonata form. Violoncello-piano sonatas also had their share of these changes. The present study performs a historical and structural analysis of Beethoven’s Op.5 No. 1 and Op. 102 No. 2 Violoncello-Piano Sonatas, two masterpieces of the violoncello and piano repertoire, whose comparative approach in terms of the development of the sonata form represents a part the topical concern of this study. It has been concluded that Beethoven created a unique language in sonata form and these two sonatas exercised great influences on the sonata form with an understanding of pushing the limits of both instruments technically.
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The other form of trialism discussed during the First World War by the parliament representatives in Zagreb was Subdualism or the possibility for formation of Slavic states in the Austrian and Hungarian part of the empire. The ideas was strongly supported by the deputies of HSP and SSP.,thinking that the implementation of trialism in the monarchy would lead to the formation of such states. Croatia and the assembly were officially governed by the Croatian-Serbian coalition, which finds it difficult to accept the conflict with Serbia and is not willing to discuss the question about the empire’s reformation. Despite this official stand, the assembly in Zagreb discussed the questions about subdualism, trialism and dualism due to the opposition parties. Most of the party’s deputies consider that the contribution of Croats in the military activities has to be used as an argument for the introduction of trialism in the Habsburg empire. At the same part, the Croats from the bi-national coalition were against trialism and declare themselves for the unification of Croats within the dualism that was introduced. That means that the regions of Istria and Dalmatia had to go from the Austrian part in the Hungarian one and the representatives from the assembly had to truly originate from the regions called officially Croatian-Slavic-Dalmatian ones. In the autumn of 1918 the coalition officially resigned their support for dualism. It became clear then that the reconstruction of the empire would not be made according to a trialism or subdualism plan. This made known political activists from the southern Slavic territories of Austria-Hungary accept the view that Slovenians, Croats and Serbs had to unite themselves in an independent state outside the empire. For that purpose on the 5th of October in Zagreb was created “A national Council of Slovenians, Croats and Serbs”. The political development for the unifications of Slovenians, Croats and Serbs from Austria-Hungary was achieved on the 19th of October 1918 when in the building of the assembly the representative of the National Council declared themselves for the unification of the Slovenians, Croatian and Serbian peoples in their whole ethnicity territory in a single unified sovereign state rejecting the Habsburg empire. This act caused the reaction of the Croatian assembly and on the 29th of October 1918 it ceased relations with emperor Karl, annulated the state and juridical ties with Vienna and Budapest. The Assembly in Zagreb declared the inclusion of Croatian in the common State of Slovenians, Croats and Serbs ( State of Slovenians, Croats and Serbs). The right of the National Assembly to be supreme source of the governance of the State of Slovenians, Croats and Serbs was legitimized by the deputies in the Assembly.
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In his Prometheus Unbound, Shelley reinterprets the Promethean mythologeme historicistically and psychodynamically as a response to his time’s political and ideological crisis. The Titan is resemiotised as the central figure of a metapsychological drama, in which the dialectic between the protagonist and his different chronoceptions, represented in the text as characters, takes the form of a complex multivocal negotiation between different types of memory and forgetting, synchronicistic contemplations of the present and protensive anticipations towards the future. These elements converge into a powerful strategy of mental action, or Promethean mnemotechnics, through which the protagonist first releases himself from the captivity of the tyrant Jupiter and then becomes a pragmatic model, to be followed in the reader’s extratextual dimension.
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The article examines the development of physics research in Ukraine on the example of the Ukrainian Institute of Physics and Technology (UIPT). Founded on the initiative of the eminent physicist Abram Ioffe, the UIPT has gradually become one of the world’s leading research institutions. During 1928–1938, many important events took place at the institute, which became markers for the development of physics in Ukraine and the USSR as well as in the world. An experiment on the fission of atomic nucleus using artificially accelerated protons confirmed the validity of the intentions to reorient research towards nuclear physics. The involvement of foreign specialists in the work of the UIPT contributed to the informal consolidation of scientific thinking in physics. Outstanding physicists of the world such as Boris Podolskyi, Oleksandr Weisberg, Konrad Weiselberg, Friedrich Houtermans, Laszlo Tisza, Fritz Lange, Victor Weisskopf, George Placzek, Paul Dirac, Georgii Gamov, Niels Bohr, Paul Ehrenfest, and others worked here for longer or shorter periods. Niels Bohr, Ivar Waller, Milton S. Plesset, Evan J. Williams, and Leon Rosenfeld made reports at the theoretical conferences of UIPT. As a result, in the late 1920s and during the 1930s, an informal society of physicists from around the world was formed in Kharkiv. The consolidation of talented scientists has accumulated traditions, centuries of experience, and practical knowledge in the field from many scientific schools around the world.
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The article aims to draw attention to Aleksandr Mankovskyi (1868–1946), a relatively less-known figure among modern scientists. Mankovskyi is a Ukrainian Bulgarian scientist of Polish origin, whose life was linked to three countries: Ukraine, Bulgaria, and Poland. He, a specialist in histology and embryology, was a professor at Novorossiysk University and Sofia University. Mankovskyi graduated from the Faculty of Medicine of St. Volodymyr University in Kyiv in 1894. Before graduating, he took actively part in the fight against the cholera epidemic in Bessarabia, in 1892 in Ackerman and 1893 in Bender. After graduating from the university in 1894, Mankovskyi left Kyiv and returned to Bender, working there as a zemstvo doctor.
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In the article, the author analyzes the visual strategies of the representation of the concept of «national» in the art of Estonia in the late XIXth-early XXIst century. Analyzing the socio-cultural discourses in Estonian art, the author comes to the conclusion that the initial «identity crisis» of Estonians associated with the Baltic-Scandinavian, Baltic-German and Soviet periods formed the basis of artistic strategies and practices of all Estonian art. Attempts to identify specifically Estonian features in art and culture led to the fact that artists rejected part of the historical and cultural experience of the nation: for example, at the beginning of the twentieth century, «Young Estonia» («Noor Eesti») rejected the line of «national romanticism» by Kristjan Raud, and in the 1990s, young artists (Liina Siib and Mare Tralla) denied the Soviet past, creating ironic, repulsive works on this topic. This has led to the fact that over the past twenty years, museum and curatorial strategies in the Baltic States have been aimed at actively searching for their own identity and national and ethnic identity. However, the ambivalence of the perception of the «national» is also reflected in the exhibitions of modern Estonia: asking a question about the purely «national» in Estonian art, curators get into a certain theoretical and visual dead end, since it is impossible to separate Estonian art of any period from foreign and Soviet discourses. As a result, it is difficult to identify the «specifically Estonian», «Baltic» cultural identity, that is, the national characteristics of visual images. In this regard, the concept of the so-called«national» is still acute in contemporary art in Estonia.
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In 1821, the Romanian Principalities were involved in the liberation movement of the Greeks from Ottoman rule, a crucial role in supporting it by the Romanians having different agents of influence, who convinced them that Russia will give military support for the revolution. Later, contrary to plans and promises, tsar Alexander I officially condemned it, gesture that placed Moldova in a situation of serious conflict with both the Greek revolutionaries as well as the Sublime Porte, bringing it to ruin for 16 months.
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The urgent need for the national affirmation and the transmission among the Romanians of the knowledge disseminated at European level by the Age of Enlightenment determined an unprecedented activism in the Romanian culture by intellectuals involved in the cultural-national movement of the Transylvanian School. A less known representative of the Enlightenment in Transylvania was the theologian Vasile Gherghel of Ciocotiş, who published in 1819 in Vienna, the work ―The Wordly Man, a manual containing rules of communication and behavior in society, as well as arguments about the importance of the cultivation and the promotion of the Romanian language as a condition for the recovery and affirmation of the identity in the inter-cultural dialogue of a multi-ethnic space, marked by strong cultural-political dominances. The uniqueness of the work is also given by the fact that it is the largest Romanian book with Latin spelling until then and the first work printed by someone from Maramureş. Behavioral and communication rules translated, edited and interpreted by the author, thought as a step towards rising awareness of the importance of communication and orientation of young Romanians in accordance with the behavioral demands of time, are suggestive and extremely fresh for anyone who is concerned about the desiderata of the most appropriate communications and of personal fulfilment. These are subordinated to a capital virtue that young people must acquire: the correct writing and speaking of the Romanian language, its use before any other.
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This article aims to present the Library and the Blaj Museum in the interwar period, two institutions founded and supported by the Greek Catholic Church. Blaj, a city of books and culture, had an old library which were developed and systematized during the period between the two world wars,. It has its origins back in the period of Bishop Inochentie Micu Klein and, over time, it has increased its number of books thanks to the teachers and bishops who have activated in this Romanian culture center. The museum opens in Blaj in 1939, under the direction of Stefan Manciulea. It includes religious art, ethnic objects and historical relics. The pieces in the museum have a long history, as this place of culture has its seniority in the distant past of the Blaj monastery and the schools here.
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One of the problems of Romanian ancient and medieval history is the poverty of narrative sources. Hadrian Daicoviciu, in his work The Dacians, showed that many pages were missing from the great book of Geto-Dacian history. The absence of these pages pertains to us because for many centuries we did not have a written culture. There was no concern in our mentality for elevated forms of manifestation of culture, for the generalization and development of education. However, in the epochs to which we relate, we have information that there were schools, that writing existed and was practiced, and the value of the Romanian folk literature, of our traditions and the beauty of the popular costume cannot be disputed by anyone.
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This article wants to present some information about the museum activity of the intellectual Iuliu Moisil (1859-1947) as it appears in his own notes. Alternating the public register with the intimate one in an inspired way, the biographical notes dedicated to his museum activity focus on several thematic pillars – cultural, social, educational, political – projecting on the huge canvas of history the story of Moisil’s impressive activity on the cultural scene of Modern Romania. Starting from here, the article analyzes the confessions that Moisil makes to posterity in an attempt to communicate a vision of his own activity carried out in a museum field, especially in the period 1894-1946. Complemented by many letters, articles and photographs, all these life writings have the power to enrich our historical understanding of the personality of the intellectual from Năsăud, in a way that can hardly be replicated by any other source used as research material.
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Paměťová studia se již dávno neomezují jen na zkoumání pomníků jako míst paměti. V posledních letech se jejich záběr i v českém prostředí rozšířil na výzkum kulturních praktik, vlivu digitálních technologií či mediality. Zároveň lze pozorovat nárůst zájmu o inovace v tradičním, institucionalizovaném paměťovém provozu: ve škole, v muzeu, v rámci památkové péče. Tyto dvě sféry, stejně jako teorii a praxi, se snaží propojit platforma Dějiny ve veřejném prostoru (DVP). Následující tematický blok tvoří čtveřice textů, jejichž jádro původně zaznělo ve čtyřech příspěvcích právě na fóru Dějiny ve veřejném prostoru II na sklonku roku 2020.
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Discrimination against women and girls – including gender-based violence, harmful traditional practices – is the most common form of inequality. Giving preference, privileges to sons and underestimating girls, which is the main cause of the harmful practice of sex selection based on gender, is still a widespread practice in some countries. Against this background, the role and contribution of those politicians, writers and people interested in this issue, who, at the risk of their lives, fight to improve the situation, is invaluable. Among the people with their priceless input in promotion of the above mentioned issue, we would distinguish Jean Sasson, the modern American writ-er and researcher who considered the request of an Arab woman and turned her notes about real stories into an artistic reality. In the novel “The Princess’ Diaries,” the victim of discrimination asks for help, as there is no other way for her to change any-thing; however, she hopes the situation in her country will change for the benefit of women and as it is believed, fighting always makes sense. The objective of the given paper is to bring to light the form of expressing the protest against unfair reality by the victim herself. Moreover, we aim to draw a parallel between two women and the ways they communicate the harsh reality to the rest of the world.
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