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At the end of 1903, the British traveller and writer Edith Durham (1863-1944) departed for a five-month stay in the Balkans to take part in humanitarian work on behalf of the Macedonian Relief Committee. This journey and the appalling situation in the rebellious region are the focus of her book „The Burden of the Balkans“ (published initially in London in 1905). It also includes an account of her first lengthy expedition, on horseback and on foot, through the wilds of southern and central Albania.With the many dashes of irony and humour, at which Edith Durham was a master, „The Burden of the Balkans“ is a work that can still be savoured by all.
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118These notices are based on a seven year long sojourn from 1897 to 1903 in Scutari and on frequent, longer-lasting excursions, mostly dedicated to hunting into the wide flat land that borders the Adriatic Sea up to to the mountain ranges, as the last offshoot of which the cape Rodoni cuts into the sea. In the description I follow the most natural and historical burglary routes to Scutari and then follow the north-south sequence. // The author has written these travelogues during his mandate as General Consul oft he Habsburg Empire in Sarajevo.
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In the sixteenth century, the French kings traveled for various reasons. It resulted mostly from the greater need of ruling their country directly and remaining in contact with their officials and subjects, as well as the province, instead of reigning from a distance, which makes the control impossible. However, the necessity of feeding numerous members of the court was also important. Since the negligence of servants and members of the court ended up with the accumulation of dirt in the castle halls, such travels also provided an opportunity to clean them. The ruler who kept on the move could encounter his or her subjects and observe the conditions they lived in. As for Catherine de’ Medici, not only did the movement of the court allow her to control the situation in France, but also to meet those members of her family who lived beyond its borders. Thus, her activity and attitude prevented her from restricting contacts with her daughters and her sister-in-law, and allowed her to meet her grandchildren, which was an exceptional case among the monarchs contemporary to her. Full of toil and difficulties, the traveling court was also a source of entertainment. During the reign of Charles IX, between 1563 and 1566, the grand tour was organized. Ambitious and energetic, the queen wanted to entertain her son and to beguile the time; however, this was motivated not only by her own desire to replace him as the rightful ruler, but also because of the mere fact that she perceived playfulness as an important aspect of our lives. The mother, the son, the members of their court and family surrounding them journeyed together, tackling their duties and simultaneously having fun; aside from that, they gained an ample opportunity to get to know their country and subjects better. This knowledge, in turn, facilitated apt decisions protecting the interests both of the subjects and the monarch.
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The purpose of this paper is to tackle the questions of character, form and regularity of the travels of Louis XIV. It also aims at addressing the issues of the etiquette and customs throughout his reign which accompanied them. This endeavor is based on the memoires written by cardinal Retz, Madame de Moteville, the duke of Saint-Simon, Madame de Caylus and Marie-Madeleine de La Fayatte. The court of Louis XIV distinguished itself because of its seldom mobility. Among the longer absences one may indicate the escapes of the court in the times of the Fronde (during the king’s youth), the travel for Maria Theresa of Spain – the first wife of the king – and the deployment of armies (including the grand venture to Compiegne). Aside from these cases, the king rarely traveled except for visiting either Trianon palace in Versailles or Marly – a small village near Paris; both of them served an important role in the political context, since the elitist aspect of those travels, along with the strict ceremonial and participation rules allowed the king to establish the courtly hierarchy and to gain advantages among his closest ones.
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When it comes to the Poles traveling in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; France has turned out to be an obligatory destination. Magnates journeying through western Europe were eagerly reaching Paris in order to participate in courtly ceremonies – as observers – and to experience the everyday life in this capital of the world. The Radziwiłł family was no exception in this case; as its three members – Karol Stanisław; Michał Kazimierz “Rybeńko;” his son; and Teofila Konstancja; the daughter of the latter – had reached Paris. Because of their writing inclinations; we are in possession of three – entirely different – descriptions of France and its capital city.
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In the 19th century Vilnius; as the seat of the governor; and administrative and trade center (especially during the annual fairs); was visited by the inhabitants of the surrounding lands. The city was the target of religious pilgrimages to The Gate of Dawn and Calvary near Vilnius. Youths who wanted to learn and study also came there. Newcomers took the opportunity to visit places connected with the history of the pagan Lithuania; the monuments from the time when Vilnius was one of the two capitals of the Polish‑Lithuanian Commonwealth; and to see souvenirs connected with Lithuanian magnates and with the lives of the eminent Romantic poets: Adam Mickiewicz and Juliusz Słowacki. In the 1850s; the first Vilnius travel guides written by Adam Honory Kirkor were published. They were used by travelers; who could travel by train since the early 1860s. Travel guides of the nineteenth century show the picture of the city and ancient hotels; restaurants and public transport. From the reports of the people who visited Vilnius at that time we learn about how travel conditions were changing; how everyday life of the city inhabitants looked like and how tourists and citizens were spending their free time in Vilnius.
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Tourism would not have been popularized in the interwar period but for the Polish railways. It happened because popular trains were started; and individual rides to mass events were promoted (e.g. special convention or racing trains). Some railway action was partly replaced with the action taken by League Promoting Tourism (since 1935). It should be remembered that the assessment; made from the perspective of the PKP finances; was ambiguous. The mass character of the rate concessions; in the opinion of the contemporaries; could deepen the enterprise’s problems and limit its investment and renovation possibilities. From the beginning of the 1930s; there was considerable pressure put by the central administration on tourist development – in the situation of incomplete commercialization and when PKP remained subordinated to the Ministry of Transport; the railways simply became a contractor of the following orders. The above‑mentioned mass using of the railway won new customers – efficiently organized action transporting numerous passengers; tourists and participants of a convention or a pilgrimage certainly influenced the image of PKP. Perhaps the same tourists retained and repeated the idea of the perfect interwar railways.
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The visitors’ book of the Polish‑French coal company “Skarboferm” was started in 1923. It is currently located in Coal Mining Museum in Zabrze. The majority of the sheets are decoratively finished and contain autographs of the eminent personages of the various fields of the social life and countries being a part of the delegations visiting “Skarboferm” between 1923 and 1938. The enumeration and the description of the course of the visits induce to draw a conclusion that the majority of those visits were motivated mainly by the needs of the spiritual rapprochement to the Upper Silesian community and the recognition of the Polish creativity in the field of the Upper Silesian industry.
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The Marian devotion was of a particular importance in the Polish Catholicism. The Marian shrines appeared in Poland in the twelfth century but the development of Marian devotion in the Polish territories reached its peak in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The Order of St. Paul the First Hermit (Pauline) played a special role in its spread and development in Poland. The first Pauline institution in Poland was the monastery in Częstochowa, founded by the Duke Ladislaus of Opole in 1382. Pilgrimage plays a huge role in Polish Catholicism. Representatives of all social groups used to go on pilgrimage. In addition to pilgrimages on foot, at the turn of the century they began to organize bicycle tours, rail or railway‑walking. Most pilgrims came to Marian shrines on certain holidays. This involved the solemn celebrations and the possibility of obtaining indulgences. The main Marian celebrations (indulgences) at Jasna Góra took place: on September 8th (the Feast of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary), August 15th (the Feast of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary), first Wednesday after 24th of August (the Feast of the Our Lady of Częstochowa, since 1931 moved to August 26th). The Jasna Góra Sanctuary became a pilgrimage movement destination in the fourteenth century. In total, in the years 1864–1914 around 25,500 pilgrim groups and approx. 1,000,000 people, from at least 2,300 villages, arrived to Jasna Góra. Each of the pilgrimage groups totalled up to approx. 300 people. On the other hand, the Leśniów Catholic pilgrimage site was visited by most pilgrims on July 2nd, when it celebrated a festive indulgence. Jasna Góra and Leśniów were the destinations for the individual pilgrims, too. From the fourteenth to the nineteenth century, the Marian shrine in Częstochowa was a place of worship for pilgrims from: Poland, England, Bohemia, Moravia, Hungary, Spisz and Orava, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Austria, France and Italy. In the years of partitions of Poland (1795–1914) pilgrims came from all three sectors and from the Upper Silesia region. The sanctuary in Leśniów gathered pilgrims from different regions of the First Polish Republic, Hungary (now Slovakia) and Silesia. Some of the pilgrimages were organized annually. The faithful from the province of Kraków, the Principality of Siewierskie and Upper Silesia dominated amongst the pilgrims going to Leśniów monastery. Frequently, these pilgrims came from the villages located within the distance of 100 km. There were, however, much greater distances that some pilgrims travelled, e.g. from Żywiec – approx. 130 km. Pilgrimages to Marian shrines contributed to strengthening the religious, social and political ties. Numerous centers of pilgrimage played the role of cultural and educational institutions. The presence at Jasna Góra gave the pilgrims, especially from the lower classes of the society, the opportunity to get acquainted with the history of Poland. The cult of Our Lady Queen of Poland was of especially great importance. Therefore, the invaders tried at all costs to interfere in its fostering.(Translated by Anna Plewa)
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Through the course of history, the sanctuary in Pszów was one of the most important places of the Mother of God cult in Upper Silesia. The main aim of exploration was to see the mentioned lands as a center created in human conscience. The cult of the Mother of God, pilgrimages, creating the deanery in 1924, the social structure, and a specific type of religiosity and mentality as well are the main reasons which evidence the role of Pszów as a religion center. Listed elements let us consider Pszów as the religious center of Rybnik–Wodzislaw lands. Finally, the history of the church in Pszów, the temple architecture, combating the pilgrimages in 1945–1989 and efforts of sanctuary development are described there as well.
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This paper presents tourist attractions of Romania which refer to the history of such a legendary person as Vlad the Impaler (called “Dracula”). His life and places which are linked to his life are presented and analyzed in this text. Vlad was born and grew up in Sighişoara in Transylvania (Siebenbürgen) as a son of Vlad Dracul – hospodar of Wallachia. The house where Dracula lived; is today converted into a restaurant “Casa Vlad Dracul.” Vlad Dracul’s main task was to defend Transylvania from the attacks of Turkish armies; which were very dangerous and destructive for this region. That is why in Transylvania featured so called Fortress churches; raised to protect citizens before any military threat. Today we can visit these wonderful churches; as well as the great fortified refuge castles and the town. One of the best known castles is Bran. According to the legend; it was the castle of Vlad Dracul. In fact; he had never been to Bran and this history was created by Bram Stoker – the author of the book of Vampire Dracula. Dracula’s real castle was Poienari. Vlad Dracul was known as a very brutal person; whose favourite art of punishment and method of execution was impalement. This legendary person died 1476 and was buried in a small monastery at Snagov island.
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Dąbrowa Górnicza is the largest city in the Silesian Voivodeship in terms of surface area. It is also the greenest area of Silesia and the Dąbrowa Basin. Its name comes from oak forests growing there in the past, hence the presence of green acorns in its coat of arms, next to the crowned eagle and a hammer. This paper discusses the geographical location of the city, its administrative affiliation, the most important events in its history, historical monuments, religious sites, water reservoirs, green areas and a variety of recreation, sports and tourist facilities. Dąbrowa Górnicza is home to “Katowice,” currently Arcelor Mittal Poland S.A., which used to be the largest steel plant in Poland. The area of the city also includes: part of the Błędowska Desert – the only area in Europe that is covered by loose sand; “Karst springs” – the area of dolomite and limestone hills with springs ejecting 50 liters of crystalline calcium‑magnesium water per second; and an adit on the Industrial Monuments Route of the Silesian province, currently a part of the “Sztygarka” city museum.
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FEMINISM, RISING AFTER 1980 AS A SOCIAL-POLITICAL MOVEMENT IN TURKEY, HAS BEEN MUCH CRITICIZED FOR BEING STRUCTURED ON A MIDDLE-CLASS BASIS; IT IS TRUE: FEMINISM ACTUALLY DID START AS A MIDDLE-CLASS MOVEMENT. THE VANGUARDS OF THE MOVEMENT WERE, TO A GREAT DEGREE, WOMEN FROM THE DIRECTORY BODIES OF DEMOCRATIC MASS ORGANIZATIONS, THE LEFT-WING FORMATIONS OF THE PRE-1980 PERIOD (THE YEAR OF COUP D’ETAT). THEY WERE WELL-EDUCATED, METROPOLITAN--AT LEAST FOR TWO GENERATIONS--WOMEN WHO WERE ABLE TO FOLLOW FEMINIST LITERATURE IN WESTERN LANGUAGES. THUS, ANOTHER BASIC TENET OF THE MOVEMENT HAS BEEN THAT THIS “DISCOVERY OF FEMINISM” WAS MAINLY VIA WESTERN SOURCES, THAT WOMEN WERE RE-ANALYZING THEIR LIVES THROUGH WESTERN LENSES. IN ADDITION, WE CAN CLAIM THAT THE RADICAL CHARACTERISTIC OF THE MOVEMENT WAS PARTIALLY DEPENDENT UPON THIS MIDDLE-CLASS CHARACTERISTIC.
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Prezentowany, jedenasty tom z serii Życie prywatne Polaków w XIX wieku, opatrzony podtytułem „Perspektywa stołu”, przenosi uwagę na kulturowe i społeczne kwestie spożywania i jedzenia. Stanowi próbę oglądu życia prywatnego i życia codziennego epoki przez pryzmat praktyk i nawyków żywieniowych oraz szeroko pojętej kultury jedzenia. Analiza życia prywatnego dziewiętnastowiecznych Polaków „z perspektywy stołu” – w kontekście kultury kulinarnej, rytuałów konsumpcyjnych oraz społecznych uwarunkowań wyżywienia nie była do tej pory podejmowana przez badaczy. Zdecydowanie lepiej opracowane są tradycje żywieniowe w epoce nowożytnej (kuchnia staropolska) czy w dobie wieków średnich. Wiek XIX, oglądany przez pryzmat kuchni, wydaje się szczególnie interesujący. Znamionował go szybki rozwój przemysłu i komunikacji (kolej), co dało początek stopniowej niwelacji zjawiska głodu na kontynencie europejskim. Na ziemiach polskich nastąpiło zetknięcie „kuchni polskiej” z „kuchnią zaborców”. Kulturowy i społeczny kontekst wyżywienia odsłania nie tylko warunki życia codziennego, ale stwarza też grunt pod refleksje na temat przemian cywilizacyjnych, gospodarczych i kulturowych społeczeństwa polskiego. Obrazuje procesy i kierunki modernizacji oraz obszary zacofania i środowiska spauperyzowane. „Pogoń za chlebem” była głównym motywem migracji ze wsi do miast. W realiach zaborowych „kultura stołu” może być odczytywana jako kultura „własna” – narodowa i „obca”, przenikająca ze struktur o odmiennej tradycji. Praktyki kulinarne i konwenanse związane ze spożywaniem przynoszą informacje również o mentalności Polaków. Doświadczenia kulinarne podczas podróży, na emigracji czy na zesłaniu, były często ważnym wątkiem literatury wspomnieniowej, dzienników i korespondencji. Tematyka dziewiętnastowiecznej kuchni i kultury przygotowywania oraz spożywania posiłków stwarza wiele możliwości interpretacyjnych i otwiera nowe perspektywy w badaniach nad społeczeństwem polskim w dobie zaborów.
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The monograph consists of 33 articles devoted to Łódź, a city that in the 19th century transformed from a small agricultural center into an industrial metropolis within one generation. At the end of the 19th century, it was a symbol of modernization and industrialization for Central Europe, and was often compared to Manchester and the industrial cities of the United States. The authors of the monograph analyze various aspects of the economic, social and cultural life of Łódź in the period before the outbreak of World War II. They examine the faces of Łódź's modernity: modernization trends, metropolitan and peripheral nature of the city, its multiculturalism and multiethnicity, because Łódź was an attractive place of settlement for Germans, Polish peasants, Jews and newcomers from the depths of the Russian Empire. Important phenomena include the development of the workers' movement, which culminated in the revolution of 1905–1907, and emancipation movements. The analysis covered urban infrastructure and architecture, cultural phenomena (especially literature and mass entertainment typical of industrial cities), religious and political life.
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