We kindly inform you that, as long as the subject affiliation of our 300.000+ articles is in progress, you might get unsufficient or no results on your third level or second level search. In this case, please broaden your search criteria.
The article presents the history of the contact between Aleksandra Kołłontaj and the Wallenberg family. The first meetings between the Russian diplomat and the influential family of Swedish bankers took place in the 1930s during the negotiations concerning the return of the Russian gold kept by the bank owned by the Wallenbergs. Prior to the outbreak of WWII this first female ambassador met members of the Wallenberg family in a sanatorium. Undoubtedly, the encounters of Marcus Wallenberg with Aleksandra Kołłontaj affected the situation of Finland during WWII. Without their common involvement in the case, the history of Finland during the war with the USSR might have been totally different. The backstage information about the relationship between Aleksandra and Raoul Wallenberg is also very interesting. Unfortunately, we are unable to answer many questions and clarify doubts as long as the majority of the Russian archives devoted to the secretary of the Swedish diplomat remain secret.
More...
At the beginning of 1946 the enterprise referred to as the State-owned Landed Estates (PNZ) was set up. In West Pomerania two such districts were established: in Szczecin and in Koszalin. The latter was one of the biggest in Poland; Władysław Czarnecki was appointed director in September 1946. Many landowners whose landed estates had been taken away and divided into smaller parts worked for the PZN in the years 1944-1945. The management board of the enterprise was known for its negative attitude towards the so called “people’s authority” and for its support of the Polish People’s Party (PSL) headed by Stanisław Mikołajczyk. After the general parliamentary election to the sejm in January 1947 and Mikołajczyk’s escape from Poland in October 1947, the communists intensified their attacks on the management board of the PNZ. In April 1948, thirteen people were arrested following a fictitious accusation of sabotage; seven of them, including Czarnecki the director, were prosecuted at the Military District Court in Szczecin. The show trial took place in August 1948. The accused were sentenced to long terms in prison, while Władysław Czarnecki was sentenced to death. After appeal, the Supreme Military Court changed the death sentence into fifteen years’ imprisonment and alleviated the sentences of the remaining convicted people. One of them died in jail in February 1950, while the remaining were gradually released in the years 1950-1955. In January 1957, the Supreme Court acquitted all of them.
More...
The geopolitical situation of Poland after the end of WWII had a major influence on the situation of the Catholic Church, particularly its administrative structures. The new shape of the borders entailed the loss of a significant part of the Lviv and Vilnius archbishoprics. On the other hand, the incorporation of the eastern provinces of Germany – the Western and Northern Territories – involved the construction of new church structures. Polish bishops headed by Primate August Hlond, and later Stefan Wyszyński, embarked on the long-term endeavour to regulate the canonic status of the Church in the so called Recovered Territories. However, the complicated legal-international situation was becoming even more complex owing to frequent interference from the communist authorities. It was not until the October breakthrough of 1956 that a state of relative stability began in the Western and Northern territories for the church structures. Upon the post-council restoration of the Church – directly after the closure of the Second Vatican Council – the church structures began to be reorganized in Poland. Two projects were run, encompassing the complex proposals regarding the whole territory of the Polish People’s Republic. The first project constituted the comprehensive study of 1967, which was probably generated by the Wrocław entourage under the auspices of Archbishop Bolesław Kominek. The document stipulated that the borders of the dioceses should be adjusted to the current administrative division of the state. Seven provinces were to be established: the provinces of Gdansk, Gniezno, Katowice, Cracow, Lublin, Warsaw and Wrocław. The 1967 project broke away from the former administrative divisions of the Catholic Church in Poland. Nevertheless, such revolutionary solutions were rejected by the members of the Main Council of the Polish Episcopate headed by Primate Stefan Wyszyński. Three years later in 1970, a new project was designed. This also stipulated the creation of seven provinces, the names of which were taken from geographical regions. Like the former one, this project also did not go beyond preliminary preparations owing to the radical solutions it proposed (e.g. the liquidation of the archbishopric of Gniezno) and the current international situation – the unsettled question of the Polish western frontier. Both documents allow us to appreciate the significant extent of the Church’s involvement in the process of the post-council reorganization of administrative structures in Poland.
More...
Until the beginning of the 18th century in Royal Prussia and the Duchy of Prussia there existed a shared consciousness of belonging to one country. This feeling is also present in the regional historical works. The common country “Preußenland” was founded on the territory of the former Teutonic state. Political changes taking place after the Thirteen Years’ War were not taken into account in this narration. Functioning as part of the Kingdom of Poland guaranteed certain regional freedoms. The characteristic feature of the Prussian historiography was the description of pagan times in a negative way comparing them with the Christian times. The rebellion of the Prussian towns was depicted as the result of the arrogance of the Teutonic Order starting from the times of the rule of Konrad von Wallenrode. The outbreak and development of the Reformation hindered the process of the creation of the rival regional identities. Historiographers did not use the sources to create one general narration, but they entwined various, sometimes contradictory, narratives in their works.
More...
The loss of the significant part of the territory by the Monastic State of the Teutonic Order after 1466 entailed structural changes in the state. Inspections constituted an important scrutinizing factor in various fields of life. They were a permanent element of the reforms undertaken in the Teutonic Order. The expertise of the inspectors originally was not precisely defined. However, with time they became more and precise. In the times of the rule of Grand Master Heinrich Reuß von Plauen we know only about one inspection from the Austrian bailiff in 1469. During the rule of the subsequent Grand Master Heinrich Reffle von Richtenberg (1470-1477) no inspection was recorded. During the times of Martin Truchsess von Wetzhausen (1477-1489) problems connected with the reform of the monastic life in Prussia were addressed. The discussion concerned the problem of poverty among Teutonic brothers. The great inspection was planned to take place in 1481 prior to the General Chapter. However, the General Chapter did not take place. The inspection of Livonia was postponed for 1488. In the times of Johann von Tiefen (1489-1497) the forms of inspection applied so far were discussed. One of the evidences of this discussion was a letter written by the secretary of the Grand Master’s chancery Dr Michale Sculteti, which included forms intended for the inspection. Friedrich von Sachsen-Meißen (1498-1510) at the turn of 1498/1499 issued a regulation concerning inspections and appointed inspectors. In 1502 a detailed catalogue of questions was compiled in the Teutonic chancellery as it had been earlier done by Sculteti. In the times when the Grand Commander was Simon von Drahe (1507-1510) inspections became an important tool of the internal policy of the Grand Master Friedrich von Sachsen. The decision of the General Chapter saying that an inspection should take place every year in the Teutonic Order was enforced. However, in the times of the Grand Master Albrecht von Brandenburg0Ansbach (1511-1525) inspections ceased to play an essential role in the internal policy. Only one inspection from this period is recorded – in 1519.
More...
Titles, seals and coats of arms of Lithuanian dukes have not been hitherto the subject of interest of historians as this issue was mainly addressed marginally in the studies on the symbols of power of Grand Dukes of Lithuania, particularly Jagiellons. Owing to the considerable number and diversification of dukes living in the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania prior to the Union of Lublin, the article focuses on the analysis of titles, seals and coats of arms used by the Gediminas family and their descendants. In the period under discussion the dukes played a major social and political role, particularly at the end of the 14th century and at the beginning of the 15th century since they ruled their own feudal duchies and cooperated (or competed) closely with the Grand Duke. Although in the 15th century they lost their political sovereignty and became part of the class of landowners, they continued to keep many privileges and still played a major role in political and social life, particularly in their provinces. Enjoying the authority and extensive influence, the dukes generated the set of symbols of power and importance, which is worth examining. The analysis of the most representative monuments shows that titles, seals and coats of arms constituted a kind of indicator reflecting the social status and the position of the Gediminas family in the country: different symbols defined the rank of the Gediminas family as feudal dukes, and different symbols referred to their position as wealthy landowners. Both in the first and second situation, the dukes were capable of using the symbols in such a way so as to create their propaganda image and express far-reaching political aspirations. The symbolism of grand dukes, in particular one of the Jagiellons, was available to the dukes and they willingly used it. The fact of being inspired by the monarch’s symbols seems to differentiate Lithuanian dukes from other branches of the ruling European dynasties. It may mean that dukes considered the fact of being related to grand dukes rather than their wealth to be the source of their power and importance.
More...
The article discusses the journey of King Stanisław Leszczyński from Toruń, which he left on 10 Jan 1708, to Vilnius, where he arrived on 22 March 1708. The journey to Lithuania was forced by the Swedish sovereign Charles XII, who was accompanied by Leszczyński from the autumn of 1706. The question is whether the journey of King Stanisław launched in the winter of 1708 was a rational decision. It strengthened the position of Leszczyński in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Still his position predominantly depended on the Sapieha family, who were supported by Charles XII. During his few personal meetings with Charles XII, Leszczyński failed to convince Charles XII to approve of his political concepts. It still remained unknown whether the Polish monarch should accompany Charles XII in his journey into Russia or whether he should return to Poland and try to appease people at home. The closest collaborators of King Stanisław were skeptical (with the exception of the Sapiehas) of the political and military plans of Charles XII; they also disapproved of the conduct of the Swedish troops in Poland. The Swedes treated Poland as a conquered state imposing very high contributions and induced the delivery of food and pasture for horses.
More...
The debate about the shape of the future secret services, which became increasingly heated at the turn of 1989 and 1990 in the Polish Parliament and in the media, revealed a major number of experts, journalists and politicians of various backgrounds who were advocates of radical reforms. The differences among them consisted in the election of one of the two possible ways of introducing the reforms: the “zero option” or “continuation” of the hitherto applied solutions through their adaptation for the needs of the democratic state. However, it turns out that there were many other possible solutions. The “zero option” and “continuation” constituted two contradictory types between which there existed many more gradual forms. Their position was determined by such factors as: “the manner of breaking away with communism”, the level of the government’s experience and knowledge about the reform of the secret service, the involvement of the governing group in this field. Having analyzed all the factors, it becomes possible to sort out the solutions in terms of their organizational structure, their position in the structure of the state authorities, methods, change of the personnel (including the executive staff). The aim of this work is to present the solutions applied in Poland in 1989 in relation to the factors which determined them.
More...
The article presents the repressions of the communist apparatus against the clergyman of the Chełmno diocese – priest Feliks Ożga. The problems of the priest started at the end of the 1940s, when in his sermons he criticized the political system of the time. In 1951 he was sentenced for the first time for his anti-Polish activity and imprisoned for 8 months. The real problems of the priest commenced when he started to cooperate with activists of the youth independence organization of the Home Army “Orlęta”. During the attempt to arrest the priest, officers of the Security Bureau beat him up and abducted him. The Curia of the Bishop of Chełmno set up a committee, the aim of which was to explain all the circumstances of the nightly events in Konarzyny. Eventually, the Military Regional Court in Gdańsk sentenced the priest Feliks Ożga for 8 years in prison for his anti-Polish activity. After he was released from jail, the priest did not give up his activity, which entailed further repressions.
More...
The article is devoted to the conflict between Peter Steynort, a miller from the Dzierzgoń [Christburg] commandry and the inhabitants of the Old City of Elbląg in the years 1411-1412. The details of the conflict are known from the claim put forward by Steynort to the Grand Master. In the first part of the article the conflict is described against the legal and political conditions in Elbląg at the beginning of the 15th century, while the second part includes the edition of the source. In June 1410 Peter Steynort purchased on credit an inn in the village of Myszewo [Mausdorf] situated in the patrimony of the Old City of Elblag. A month later the inn was burnt down by the Lithuanian-Ruthenian troops taking part in the siege of Marlbork [Marienburg]. In March 1411 Peter Steynort returned to Myszewo, but refused to pay off 140 marks for the inn and two hides of land saying that the commander had not agreed to the transaction. The essence of the conflict was the discrepancy between the rule of territorial jurisdiction and personal jurisdiction along with the right to exemption. The authorities of Elbląg had full rights to execute the judicial power on the territory of the city and the patrimony. On the contrary, Peter Steynort believed that he could not carry out legal actions without the permission of the commander. The source material published here shows the daily activities of the city’s courts and the belief shared by the Elbląg elites about the right to the legal-political autonomy of the city.
More...
The edition presents the sources concerning the borders between the Duchy of Słupsk and the Monastic State of the Teutonic Order in Prussia of the 14th and 15th century. The basis for the edition are records included in the boundary book – the so called Grenzbuch B with the entry number OF 270a preserved in XX. Hauptabteilung in the Secret State Archive in Berlin-Dahlem. Among the published sources, texts no. 3, 6, 7 were edited by Reinhold Cramer, but they fail to include the dates (no. 6, 7) and the explanations of topographic names appearing in them. The remaining texts were not published (no. 1–2, 4–5, 8–12). The first group of sources (no. 1–4) was written in the period from the second half of the 14th century to the beginning of the 15th century. The second group of descriptions (no. 507) resulted from the circuit [Polish: ujazd] around the boundary by the Gdańsk commander Albrecht, earl von Schwarzburg of the end of 1405. They were included in the introductory Pomeranian-Teutonic border agreement of 14 October 1407, next in the sealed agreement of 23 September 1408. The creation of the third group of descriptions (8–9) should be associated with Teutonic preparations to the arbitration agreement in front of the Roman and Hungarian king Sigismund of Luxembourg, and with the activity of the sub-arbiter Benedict Makrai in the years 1412–1413. The last group of descriptions (no. 10–12) was created in the situation of the conflict concerning the establishment of the border between the Człuchów commandry and the Szczecinek land in the vicinity of Dołgie Lake in 1417. None of the published sources presents the whole Pomeranian-Teutonic border from the estuary of the river Łeba to the Baltic Sea in the north to Lędyczek in the south, but its individual fragments. Description no. 1 includes the description of the border between the Człuchów commandry / the Tuchola commandry and the Kingdom of Poland. In source no. 2 there is a list of arbitrators from the Pomeranian party and the Teutonic party negotiating the border between the villages of Oskowo and Siemirowice / Unieszyno. The information about informer and arbitrators may be found in source no. 3 (both the Pomeranian and Teutonic parties) and no. 4 (the Teutonic party). Each of the published descriptions is characterized by precision and plethora of topographic names. They should be used for the analysis of the problem of shaping and functioning of the border between the Duchy of Słupsk and the Monastic State of the Teutonic Order in Prussia in the context of the political and economic situation on the Pomeranian-Teutonic borderland in the Late Middle Ages.
More...
The article constitutes a prolegomenon to the issue of the service of Silesian Evangelicals in the Swedish army during the Great Northern War (1700–1721), which has so far been absent in scholarly literature. The main objective of this text is to analyse their motives for joining the military service of the Kingdom of Sweden, as well as to trace their career and position in the officer corps. The above issue is part of the research on the officer corps of Charles XII’s army, and thus it may serve as an important point of reference also for the works devoted to the service of Polish and Lithuanian officers in the Swedish army of that period. A group of several dozen representatives of the Silesian nobility and aristocracy, whose members served in the rank of officers in various units of almost all the enlistments of the Swedish army (the largest number in the mercenary värvade regementen), throughout the whole war period (the most numerous in the period of 1703/1704–1709), mainly as the dragoons, and less often in other cavalry formations. The primary source for selection was a twovolume dictionary by Adam L.C. Lewenhaupt entitled Karl XII:s officerare. Biografiska anteckningar (Stockholm 1920–1921). Among the handwritten primary sources, the materials stored in Riksarkivet and Krigsarkivet were used, which primarily constitute records from the Royal Registry and military roles. They have been subjected to critical analysis in order to prepare possibly the most thorough biographies of officers of Evangelical faith from Silesia. A number of research methods have been used, such as the biographical, genealogical or statistical methods. The representatives of the following old and influential Silesian families were mentioned: von Ferentheil, von Franckenberg, von Holly, von Koschembahr and von Lindeiner. Among less significant families of the Silesian nobility, the representatives of the following families were scrutinised: Dumky, Görlitz, Hoffman, Kluge and Schmitt. An in-depth survey in Swedish, German, Austrian, Russian, Danish, Latvian and Estonian archives is necessary for further research. This is due to the fact that the representatives of the described group served in the armies of various states over the years, and were also imprisoned in various countries. The article significantly broadens the knowledge about the ways of recruiting officers by the Swedish army during the Great Northern War, and also brings us closer to the individual profiles of Evangelical officers from Silesia and the ways of their promotion. It also points out the importance of the representatives of this group among the commanders of the mercenary regiments (värvade regementen). As the text takes into account the historical political, military and religious situation, it allows to understand what drove the representatives of the described group to join the ranks of Swedish troops. Further survey in foreign archives, especially among specific documents, such as military roles and lists of prisoners of war, may bring a great deal of new information about the mentioned officers, and allow to identify those who were not included in the Lewenhaupt’s book. Undoubtedly, it will also constitute a starting point for the research on the service of officers from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Swedish army, whose number was significant in the examined period.
More...
This article examines the social protest movement against the socialist regime in the Baltic port cities of Szczecin and Gdańsk, in particular between 1970 and 1981. It intends to discuss the impact of these strikes on the formation of a regional and national political culture, which is widely connected to the concept of civil society, in a longer perspective. While Szczecin, after the bloody clashes with the regime’s law enforcement in mid-December 1970, saw a longer-lasting period of strikes, which led to an intervention by First Secretary Edward Gierek, these protests remained limited to the community of workers and did not yet challenge the rule of the Polish United Workers’ Party. They contributed, however, to the formation of a local Polish identity from below. However, in Gdańsk and, in a broader perspective, in the entire Polish Tricity (consisting of Gdańsk, Gdynia and Sopot) a close cooperation between workers and intellectuals emerged during the 1970s, which proved to be decisive during the strike of August 1980. In Szczecin, the similarly strong strike movement of summer 1980 lacked the national (and international) resonance of the protests in Gdańsk. In addition, the political impact and the collective commemoration (as well as the scholarly research) of the workers’ protests in the case of Szczecin remained mostly a local issue even after the fall of the socialist regime. Which stands, once again, in sharp contrast to the situation of Gdańsk.
More...
Not many primary sources document the lives of ordinary Teutonic Knights who were not among the highest officials of the Order. Therefore, the preserved mentions from the town of Burgdorf, modern-day Switzerland, prove to be of great importance. These refer to two Teutonic Knights, Konrad and Rudolf von Kyburg, who returned to their homeland during the summer of 1383. It is all the more interesting due to the fact that the older of the two – Konrad – was referred to in a document of 1375 as an ordinary Teutonic Knight staying in Balga. His younger brother is also likely to have served in the Teutonic Order in Prussia. The reason for their journey home was the Burgdorf War, which was started in November of 1382 by their nephew Rudolf II von Kyburg, who made an unsuccessful attempt at capturing the town of Solothurn. It resulted in a conflict with Bern, which was the most powerful city in that region. The return of Konrad and Rudolf to their homeland would not have been possible without the approval of their superiors, including the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order. The scarce primary sources that were preserved indicate that the two Teutonic Knights tried to alleviate the conflict by diplomatic means, however, without success. They were given a certain amount of time before they were obliged to return to Prussia. The issue of financing the journey is really interesting. Even though the presence of the two Teutonic Knights was certainly beneficial for the von Kyburg family, it is highly unlikely that the relatives covered their travel expenses, as the family had been impoverished long before the war even began, and it needed to allocate all the available resources for the defense of the ancestral castle. Thus, the Teutonic Order was forced, against its thirteenth-century rules, not only to approve but also finance the purely private journey of its two longtime members to their homeland.
More...
Review of: Darius Staliūnas - Eligijus Raila, Lietuvystės Mozė. Jono Basanavičiaus gyvenimo ir ligos istorija, Vilnius: Naujasis Židinys-Aidai, 2019, 430 p. ISBN 978-609-8163-22-3
More...