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K.V. Kasparova, V.E. Eremenko’s opponent, is quite positive about his work in general, though she makes a number of comments. She does not agree, in particular, with the too early date of the stage C1b in La Téne (225-190 BC); again, she is not quite convinced with an attempt to distinguish a stage on Zarubintsy sites, preceding the marches of Bastarnae to the Balakans in 179-168. She also points out a number of inaccuracies, particularly, in synchronisation of phases on the cemeteries of Poienesti, Lukashevka and Dolineni.
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The article deals with the materials of Central European cultures of the third century BC to the second century AD and, in particular, with the materials of Pomorsk, Jastorf and Przeworsk cultures which are found on the settlements and cemeteries of Zarubintsy culture in the Middle Dnieper area. These materials indicate an active influence of these cultures through trade and by direct presence of representatives of these Central European cultures in Zarubintsy cultural environment which can be interpreted as results of their numerous migrations to the territory of the Dnieper area and further eastward during the whole period of their existence. These migrations caused considerable changes in cultural and ethnic environment in the mentioned region and influenced the whole development of the historical process in Zarubintsy cultural area, as well as outside its limits, both in the period of its formation and in the periods to come. All these factors determined the flow of the historical process to a great extent.
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The author publishes materials of a small non-fortified settlement of Zarubintsy culture in Brest Oblast’ of Belarus. Besides a series of pits of different shapes and use, excavations found remains of a square feature with pillar structure, deepened into the soil as far as 0.4 m. It is an unusual structure for Zarubintsy features in this region. The house is dated by the late stage of this settlement – as early as I c. AD.
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The cemetery is situated close to the village Dolinjany (Chernovtsy oblast’, Ukraine) and was excavated during 1977-1988. Fifty-eight burials were discovered on the cemetery. The article gives materials of the second period of research on the Dolinjany cemetery (burials 25-58). Cremations in pits predominate on the cemetery (46 out of 58), others are in urns. Grave goods isn’t very rich – 1-2 fibulae, 1-2 bracelets almost in each grave, only five burial complexes could be called rich. Besides that, clasps, pendants, various glass beads were found. There were 24 ceramic vessels, basically, black polished pottery found in the graves. The majority of the burial complexes of Dolinjany are from the second phase of Poienesti-Lukasevka culture (La-Téne C2-D1), others are from the final phase (La-Téne D1-D2). So, the Dolinjany cemetery could be dated between 2nd half of II c. BC – late I c. BC.
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The article analyses development of ceramic assemblage on the sties of Middle Tushemlya type, basing on the model of three settlements in Dvina area (south of Pskov Oblast’), which are dated by II–III cc. AD. The pottery on these sites is mainly represented by typical big hand-made vessels of truncated conic shape with everted rim decorated with tucks and incisions. Some wares have hatching decoration on the external surface. This type of wares find no local roots. The closest analogues can only be found as near as on the sites in Sozh river basin and on Dnieper at the confluence of the rivers Sozh and Berezina (sites of Chechersk-Kisteni type); they are, however, dated there by earlier period: II c. BC – I c. AD. The author believes that the facts of disappearance of such sites in Sozh basin and appearance of pottery typical of the middle layer of Tushemlya in Dvina basin are interconnected and seem to be evidence of migration activities.
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The settlement of Lepesovka was discovered on the river Goryni in Belgorod raion of Khmelinitskaya Oblast’ in the Republic of Ukraine. Excavations were conducted in 1957-1962 by M.A. Tihakova. Lepesovka is one of the largest excavated settlements of Cherniakhov culture. It yielded vessels with the internal surfaces decorated with Malta cross or a cross with branched ends in shape of trees or palm branch. The vessels are of grey colour, made of well-tempered clay with mica. The baking is even and of a high quality. The decoration is glossed. Some vessels have similar bottoms: they have an incision in the centre on the external surface, the clay was taken out by a cutter. A group of red-lacquered pottery from Tanais is marked by similar bottoms. Origin of these vessels is connected with the centre of pottery manufacture in the north of Asia Minor. Origin of decoration on the studied vessels can be associated with the Christian influences. Presence of slaves and emigrants from Asia Minor on the territory of Cherniakhov culture is known from historical records, some of the emigrants were Christians. Among these newcomers, there were craftsmen, probably potters too. The images similar to the ones discovered in Lepesovka, however, are typical of the cosmological representations of the Germans as well, which made up a considerable part of Cherniakhov population. There was probably, as well, a combination and superimposition of pagan and Christian religious ideologies.
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The article provides cultural and historical interpretation of Cherniakhov antiquities. The author believes that the essence of Cherniakhov archaeological society does not correspond to an archaeological culture. The latter one is seen as a cultural manifestation of a related primitive ethnic group, which manifests its unity in its own material features dominating all over the territory on which this archaeological culture is spread. Multi-ethnic Cherniakhov formation, with Goths playing leading role, is united into a single society by super-ethnic features generated by highly standardised potter’s and jeweler’s crafts influenced by provincial Roman culture and bearing no ethnic properties. The Cherniakhov society, far from a primitive one, was building its statehood. Cultural legacies of class societies being usually determined as civilisations /in the narrow sense of this word/, such archaeological formations as Cherniakhov should rather be called proto-civilisations. This interpretation can better reflect their higher hierarchy compared to archaeological culture. Archaeological proto-civilisation is understood as really existing material remains of several cultural and ethnic formations of pre-state period, united into one society /cultural system/ by super-ethnic features, usually the brightest ones, generated by highly standardised craft industry.
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The author distinguishes a number of stages in Cherniakhov and Kiev cultures.In the middle of III – early IV century, the bearers of Cherniakhov culture penetrate rather far in the East and reach the upper Don areas. It is on the left bank of Dnieper where Cherniakov-Kiev strip farming was developed. The boundary in the Middle Dnieper area is determined by the river Stuchka. The settlement of Gnevaha near Kiev is superimposed by Cherniakhov layer. Situation is similar on a number of other sites on the left bank. Kiev sites in IV century are exclusively located to the north and east of Cherniakhov area. The author links this situation to the wars led by Gothic king Hermanarich against the Venetians. The Hunns’ invasion in 375 changed the situation again. On the one hand, the Cherniakhov bearers penetrate in the north (burials found in Kiev), on the other hand, the bearers of Kiev culture return to the south: settlements at Slobodka 4, Sencha, Kurgan-Azak. It is the time for wars led by Vinitarius, Hermanarich’s successor, with the Ants. The first half of V century sees a “decline” of both cultures, which were followed by the sites of early Slavic culture – Penikovskaya, developed with participation of the two ancestor cultures.
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The site of the Late Roman period discovered on the territory of Transcarpathian Ukraine close to the village of Solontsy, was published as a place of sacrifice belonging to the Thracian people. However, existence of the custom of such massive sacrifices in the Late Roman time is not proved by either archaeological or written records. Meanwhile, the burial rite discovered in Solontsy - burning on burial spot without subsequent covering of the remains – is known on the synchronous cemeteries of the Dobrodzien type of the Przeworsk culture on the territory of Poland. Among Solontsy finds, gold round pendants are of special interest. One of them was made in the open-work technique, out of a filigree wire. Four other are capsules-pendants, the surface of which is decorated with ornaments of filigree wire and granules. The analogues of these artefacts can be found only on the German sites (fig. 2, 1-17). Two-piece bronze fibula with a long winding of the inverted foot and a wire ring over it (fig. 1, 2), fragments of two beakers with polished ovaloid ornament (fig. 1, 9), fragment of a rectangular, two-sided bone comb (fig. 1, 10) allow to date Solontsy complex from the second half of the IV century - to the early V century. So, the analysis of materials, the structure of the site and ware finds show that it is German cemetery that was discovered in Solontsy. There is no doubt that it evidences ancient German presence on the territory of Ukrainian Transcarpathian at the end of the Late Roman period.
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While studying Cherniakhov sites, the author distinguishes three main groups:1) Kosanovo type, which occupies the main part of Cherniakhov area, from the left bank of Dnieper to Transylvania. These sites include many elements of north-western Wielbark culture bearers (Goths) and other German tribes originating from the North Europe and Scandinavia (particularly, Heruls). On the eastern boundaries, the newcomers are in close contacts of various nature with the bearers of proto-Slavic Kiev culture.2) The type Cherepin-Teremtsy in the upper areas of Western Bug, Dniester, and on middle Dniester (Teremtsy is chronologically a relatively later stage). The author is inclined to connect this group with proto-Slavic.3) Black Sea Coast group. An active part in its formation must have been taken by the Scythians of Low Dnieper, Sarmatians and Hellenes, inhabitants of chora of Classical ancient towns on the Black Sea Coast.The author does not consider essential the role of Dacian element in Cherniakhov culture.
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This article attempts to compare the facts of written records about the East Germanic tribes in Maeotis of III–IV centures A. D. with today’s archeological materials from excavations in Tanais and trade settlements of this agricultural district. The literary tradition of Gothic migration to Scythia ( Iordan’s «Getica») says that the first place of the Gothic settlement in Scythia was the Maeotis region. This Iordan’s evidence, to my mind, has no connection to the real Gothic history. The localisation of Goths near Maeotis is linked with falsification of Gothic history by Cassiodorus, who brought into the Gothic history subjects from other nations’ histories, the Scythian in this case. Scythians living near Maeotis is the topos of the classical literary tradition. The written records about Gothic wars in 240 - 270 A. D. tell about a tribe of Heruli who lived at the time near Maeotis lake and took part in wars. Heruli lived near Maeotis in the IV c. A. D. before Hunns appeared in South Russia. Archeological materials from South Russia may tell about a change of ethnic situation in this region in the second half of III c. A. D. It was expressed in formation of Cherniakhov culture, the German origin of which is not doubted by researchers. In the works of today researchers of Cherniakhov culture, the region on the coasts of Azov sea (in antiquity called Maeotis) does not include the Cherniakhov cultural area. But excavations of Tanais yielded archeological artifacts, which may be connected with Cherniakhov culture. These are hand-made pottety, bone combs, fibulae. These artifacts are associated with the East Germanic tribe of Heruli living in Maeotis region.
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Recent excavations on Ancient Classic town of Tyra (Belgorod-Dnestrovskii in Odessa Oblast’) revealed a series of wheel-thrown open lamps in the Roman layers. These lamps find no analogues among the materials of Ancient towns on Northern and Western Black Sea Coast (fig. 1, 2). Besides Tyra where already about fifteen such lamps have been found, two artefacts have been found in Nikonia (left bank of Dniester Firth) and Luzanovka (shore of Odessa Bay). We suppose that this original type of lamps could have been produced in Tyra itself. They have a rather wide dating – II-III centuries AD.
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Many years of efforts to clarify chronology of Cherniakhov culture led to a possibility to study evolutions of typical elements of culture. The article analyses early Cherniakhov wheel-thrown pottery. It comes from early sites, identified on basis of chronologies proposed by a number of researchers. It gives description of this pottery, its comparison with pottery belonging to cultures found in the Carpathian region and Wielbark culture. It has been determined that none of them gave foundations for development of early Cherniakhov wheel-thrown pottery, although a number of links can be identified. An idea that the Cherniakhov pottery was based on a powerful impact combining La Téne (indirect), Central-European-German and provincial Roman features, has acquired further evidence and foundation for further development. One of possible ways to develop this idea lies in studying the appearance of proto-Cherniakhov wheel-thrown grey clay pottery on sites belonging to late Scythians on the North-Western Black Sea Coast dated by the first half of the I millennium AD.A special topic is a preliminary observation of ethnic and cultural features of interments, which yielded the studied Cherniakhov pottery. The grave goods found in majority of these interments include hand-made pottery with Wielbark, Przeworsk and German (Elba pots) features. Every fifth interment contains golden and silver articles, in proportion untypical of Cherniakhov culture. The individual finds are represented by artefacts of Central and North-Eastern European, less frequently, Roman origin. No Dacian elements were found.
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The main ideas of this paper are the following:1. We are compelled to reject the traditional understanding of stages and phases of relative chronology as a range of certain “squares” or “rectangles”, which subsequently replace each other over time, no matter whether it is general European chronological system or internal division of Cherniakhov culture. Such “square approach” will inevitably cause contradictions and discrepancies. While calculating absolute dates, it always happens that typologically alternating stages widely superimpose and co-exist practically in parallel.2. A solution of this paradoxical situation, as we see it, is just one: we must change the very “paradigm” of our chronological thinking and see our stages and phases as some certain “rhombuses”. Then they will be to some extent superimposing, and will follow each other at the points of maximum width.3. With such “rhombic approach” the Cherniakhov culture does not stop existing unexpectedly by 375, which was taken, by the way, as a premise by many researchers when estimating the European system; rather, a number of Cherniakhov cemeteries and settlements, while gradually “fading away”, went on further functioning, up to the middle of V c. It complies also with the historical situation: part of Ostrogoths remained in their places of habitation till the battle of Nedao in 455.
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The objective of this review is to inform the readers about a new monograph in Romanian language. The book titled “Free Dacians in Moldova. Archaeological Records. Cemeteries Podeni and Zvoryshtea” by M.Ignat studies material and spiritual culture of the Dacians on the lands between the Carpathians and Prut river in II-III cc. A.D. The monograph publishes material collected on two Dacians cemeteries of the time and oflers author`s own typology of pottery and other goods. The author provides both traditional typology and systematization of the grave goods by role and use of each item in the funeral rite. Of major attention is study of the funeral rite among the free Dacians in various aspects: from classification of graves to reconstruction of cremation ceremony and religious beliefs about existence after death. Based on differences in funeral rite, the author gives a classification of Poeneshti cemeteries, as the published sites belong to this group, and divides it into chronological phases which are synchronized with neighbour cultures and cultural groups.
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The tumulus called «Voznesenskiy» was excavated in 1998 in the city of Zaporozhe, the Ukraine. 13 graves were uncovered in the tumulus: 2 – the Late Eneolithic, 2 – the Yamnaya (Pit-grave) culture, 8 – the Catacomb culture, 1 – the Late Bronze Age and 1 – undetermined. The primary burial mound was built above the grave No 4 whereas the second Eneolithic grave No 2 was made in the process of the erection of the mound. The deceased in the Eneolithic graves were buried in supine position with the legs flexed (No 4) and in the slightly contracted position on the right side (No 2). The Eneolithic graves may be dated to the end of the IV – middle of the III mill. b.c. (uncalibrated). The burials of the Bronze Age are quite ordinary and belong to the late stages of corresponding cultural units.
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The purpose of this publication is to make the Russian-speaking readers familiar with the collection of articles called «The Holocene History of the European Vertebrate Fauna – Modern Aspects of Research» (Leidorf, 1999), representing a large spectrum of scientific studies in Palaeo- and Archaeozoology. This article brings a brief summary of the book’s contents with attention focused on basic problems, new methods and examples of how the data of the allied disciplines (Archaeology, Archaeobotany, Physics, Genetics, History and Art Sciences) can be used. The collection includes five sections: Faunal Changes at the Pleistocene/Holocene Transition; Formation and Evolution of the Holocene Fauna in Different Regions of Europe; Methodological Problems; Single species/Species groups; Natural and Anthropogenic Factors in the Evolution of the Vertebrate Fauna of Europe. This complex research enables conclusions about the general problems of modern Archaeozoology. The issues of domestication and artificial introduction of animals are still the most complicated and little known ones; these and many other issues of Holocene history of fauna are generated by methodological problems, particularly, the problems of species differentiation of bone remains.
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The article is devoted to the famous Soviet archaeologist M.I. Artamonov. The author discusses a complicated administrative and scientific situation, which occurred in the Institute for the History of Material Culture (Leningrad) in the late 30-s. The main essence of the situation was a conflict between the research staff of the Institute and its head academician I.A. Orbeli. A role of M.I. Artamonov as a gifted academic leader and scholar is shown both in these events and in his activities as the head of the Institute after I.A. Orbeli.
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