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Analyses were conducted with five groups of stove tiles connected by various attributes, which are known from many locations in the Czech lands of the second half of the 15th century, from the neighbouring Austria or Poland, as well as from the nearby Hungary.
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The feast that celebrates the revelation of God (Epiphany), as the Gospel of Matthew (Mt 2.1–12) says, commemorates three Wise Men (also referred to as Magi or Kings) from the East who came to worship the newborn King of the Judeans. This motif mostly occurs on medieval relief stove tiles in the form of a compositionally unified picture, comprising Virgin Mary with Baby Jesus and three figures of Kings bringing gifts in various containers. The scene is usually framed by a simple post-built building reminding of the Bethlehem Stable and by the inevitable star that guided the Three Kings arriving either afoot, or exceptionally riding on animals’ backs. Distinguished from this concept is a series of tile reliefs, whose figures, placed mostly on a two-cusped segmental arch of a tracery, became independent and were depicted on their own separate stove tiles of rectangular format (in more detail Loskotová 2011, 14–20, 35–37, 108–112, 150–156, 246–248). The owner or builder of the given stove thus got more space to combine individual figures, especially due to additional figures who enriched the series. In the basic series, which is defined by a bordure in the form of crossed bars anchored at the foot of the above-mentioned arch, we so far completely or partially identified fourteen reliefs. In some locations, these reliefs are still supplemented by another figures that imitate the style and composition of the original collection.
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The tournament series comprises only four motifs, but it is easy to distinguish from the numerous relief depictions with similar content. Similarly as it was with the Adoration of the Magi series, the figures are not crowded together in the area of a single frontal heating panel, but appear individually on separate stove tiles. Apart from the overall visual design, these tiles are interlinked by the element of an ogee arch at the foot of the relief. The arch is topped by a transversal fess, on which individual figures are placed (Jordánková–Loskotová–Merta 2004, 582–583, 588–589; Jordánková–Loskotová 2007, 334–339, 352–355; 2007a; Loskotová 2011, 69–74). Inclined armorial shields are visible in pendentives on both sides of the arch. The main figures – two knights in full plate armour – are depicted just before the moment of their collision, with lance heads touching the opponent’s shield. The heraldic symbols (saltire raguly in escutcheon and a panache of peacock feathers with a fish in crest) enable to identify the knight riding to the left with Hynek Bítovský of Lichtenburk (Fig. 1; Stehlíková 1999, 227) – the leader of Moravian Catholic opposition against George of Poděbrady. The coat of arms on the other side of the relief and the armorial bearings on the shield on horse’s forehead belong to the Lords of Šternberk (eight-pointed star). The opponent can be identified on the basis of the figure preserved in the shield and crest as a member of the royal family of the Lords of Kunštát (Fig. 2). The coat of arms below the fess on the opposite side of this relief is unfortunately not preserved among the recorded finds. Behind this knight, there is a jester riding a hinny, donkey or mule.
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The name “knight’s stove” was introduced into professional literature by the Hungarian researcher I. Holl. He used the term to designate a set of stove tiles from archaeological excavations in the area of the royal palace in Budapest. Following the relief decoration and technological design, these tiles belonged to one and the same type of a heating device. The chosen name was inspired by the figure of a cantering knight in the middle of relief decoration in one of the tile groups. Holl dated the origins of this stove on the basis of a detailed analysis of heraldic elements in the whole collection to a short interval between 1454 and 1456, i.e. to the period of reign of Ladislaus the Posthumous. He first defined twelve types in the find collection (Holl 1958, 291–294). The subsequent processing of finds then identified another types (13–23) and variants of the original group (Holl 1971, 199–200). The finds treated in this chapter also are classified on the basis of Holl’s typology.
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The graphic design of the relief springs from an older tradition of Gothic ornaments in the form of a rosette, which is enclosed by a bordure from raguly sticks entwined with a leaved twig (Fig. 1). This motif is mainly known from the production of the royal workshop in Buda in the 2nd half of the 15th century (e. g. Holl 1971, 179, 199). Later conception replaced the raguly bordure on the sides and in the upper part by a meander (zigzag), which is interrupted by heads (putti?) in the upper corners and by small rosettes in the lower corners. Above the bottom edge of the relief, there is an inscription “scham dich” (shame on you) in Gothic minuscule, rhythmised by another rosettes. The inscription is undoubtedly related to the central figure of a hunched lion surrounded by a vegetal pattern from leaves and brier flowers that are separated from the meander by a right-angled rope (Fig. 2).
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Ceramic finds were analysed depending on the availability of individual methods and possibility of destructive sampling. Analyses were made with selected representatives of stove tile series and groups, which are frequently found on various sites in our territory during the 15th century and whose occurrence is not limited only to the Czech lands. Series are characterised as assemblages of finds with clearly definable common features, i.e. collections of thematically related stove tile motifs set into a unified architectonic frame (Adoration of the Magi, tournament) and stove tiles, whose belonging to one and the same type of heating device is determined by a characteristic application of elements of Gothic architecture in connection with heraldic and artistic components of their decoration (knight’s stove). Group encompasses stove tiles with hunting and courtly motifs with similar visual design, which is supplemented by a secondary connecting element in the form of a vegetal ornament. However, this ornament does not represent an integral part of relief decoration and its form and application are variable. A separate group is represented by a motif, which is found on various sites in the same relief design and proportions (guilty lion), but the find contexts do not indicate its possible connection to other reliefs in the body of a stove.
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Pohrebné rituály (sānglǐ 丧礼) bývajú v Číne chápané viacerými spôsobmi či už ako najdôležitejšie rituály spadajúce pod kult predkov, ako rituály reprezentujúce smrť, alebo ako prechodové rituály medzi terajším a posmrtným životom. V Číne je téma smrti tabu, o umieraní sa nehovorí a o smrti samotnej sa hovorieva v eufemizmoch. Nakoľko Číňania veria, že v celom vesmíre musí byť nastolená rovnováha a harmónia, či už sa jedná o vnútorné záležitosti jednotlivcov alebo sociálne interakcie vo všeobecnosti, kládol sa v Číne na pohrebné rituály veľký dôraz. Smrť totižto reprezentovala narušenie rovnováhy vesmíru a pohrebné rituály napomáhali k znovuobnoveniu rádu. Okrem toho boli pohreby a správne vykonané pohrebné rituály považované aj za znak synovskej oddanosti. Zle prevedené obrady mohli uvaliť hanbu ba dokonca aj nešťastie na celú rodinu. Akt venovania rakve deťmi rodičom bol taktiež chápaný ako prejav synovskej oddanosti, ktorý robil rodičov šťastnými. Na pohreby sa muselo šetriť dopredu, pretože boli finančne nákladné a ich cieľom bolo predovšetkým ukázať prestíž a oddanosť rodu. Okrem uctenia si zomretého však slúžili pohreby aj ako príležitosť na utuženie vzťahov v rodine, keďže sa pri nich stretávala celá rodina.
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Posvátno hrálo roli v tradiční čínské kultuře už od nepaměti. Souznění čínského myšlení a značné dávky pragmatismu vede Číňany k využití veškerých cest a prostředků vedoucích k vytouženému cíli – tedy k harmonickému a spokojenému životu rodiny, potažmo i jednotlivce. K dosažení tohoto cíle je mimo jiné zapotřebí přispění božstev na nebesích i v záhrobí, duší předků i vnitřní substance předmětů, které má každý Číňan denně kolem sebe. Tradiční čínský světonázor je kombinací nejstarších kosmologických představ, kultu předků, konfuciánství, taoismu, buddhismu i materialismu. Toto vše se po staletí vzájemně mísilo a doplňovalo o další složky, čímž vznikla synkretická víra, označovaná jako „čínské lidové náboženství“
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Palác Granovských nechal vystavět Jakub ml. Granovský z Granova po roce 1558, a to na starších základech zástavby kupeckého dvora, který získal do dědičného držení. V literatuře bývá palác shodně označován za významnou realizaci a mezník ve vývoji pražské renesanční architektury – tomu však neodpovídá prostor, který je stavbě věnován. Dosavadní bádání se zaměřovalo především na severní dvorní křídlo paláce, jehož arkády a chiaroscurové malby se staly podnětem k propojení stavby s dvorským okruhem. Toto propojení bylo zdůvodněno přízní, kterou choval císař Ferdinand I. k rodu Granovských z Granova. Otázkou postavení stavebníka Jakuba ml. Granovského a jeho kontaktů s dvorským prostředím v době výstavby paláce se však nikdo podrobněji nezabýval a proto bude jedním z hlavních témat tohoto příspěvku.
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Domácí tradice nástěnného malířství se v Čechách plně rozvinula až v 18. století s osobností Václava Vavřince Reinera, avšak již ve druhé polovině 17. století se v dějinách českého výtvarného umění setkáváme s osobností malíře Fabiána Václava Harovníka, který se takřka jako jediný domácí umělec své doby specializoval na techniku nástěnné malby. Jeho dílo sice kvalitativně zaostávalo za soudobou evropskou produkcí, ale přesto jej výzdobou svých sídel pověřovali zástupci z řad vysoké aristokracie doby pobělohorské. F. V. Harovník působil od roku 1650 v pražském staroměstském cechu. Jeho dílo lze zhruba vymezit roky 1650−1682, nejexponovanějším obdobím malířovy tvorby se stala zejména šedesátá léta 17. století. Do roku 1654 dokončil spolu s G. Vanettim náchodskou zakázku pro Ottavia Piccolomini a v následujícím desetiletí pracoval na dvou významných pražských objednávkách pro Lobkovice.
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The subject of this paper is the close-kin marriages in Menander’s comedies. The normative preference for close-kin marriage was different in fourth-centry BC Athens from modern societies. However, incestuous relations between full-blood brother and sister pr parent and child were considered wrong, and were never comic material in Menander’s comedy, which was concerned with realities of everyday life. I examine the comic purpose of introducing close-kin marriages in New Comedy, and I try to give explination on the cultural attitude towards endogamy. In order to explain these issues, I classify the close-kin marriages in three groups: (1) Brother-sister marriage, (2) First cousins marriage, (3) Marriage of the epikleros.
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The contribution pays attention to mud building techniques in the Mid-Danube area and Pannonian Plain. After a large colonization process in the 18th century, the house of “Pannonian type” was formed in this multiethnic environment, which featured the multipurpose utilization of mud. More building techniques were applied allowing to use mud as building material for wall constructions. Mud was also used for the surface treatment of floors and ceilings in mud houses. In the Danube-Pannonian region, a special type of mud ovens developed. The house of Pannonian type also included special decorative forms of the internal and external elements of dwellings.
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At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, when the quantity of buildings made of unburnt bricks was at the top, 30 % to 70 % of constructions were built from this material in some villages in the District of Beroun. Permanently inhabited houses, at which the unburnt bricks dominated as material of load-bearing walls, constituted 5,0 % of the total housing as late as in 1961. In the Bohemian Karst and Prague Plateau areas (north-east part of the District of Beroun), stone or brick masonry prevailed in the 19th century. The unburnt bricks were used here to a considerably smaller extent than in the rest of the region. Mud bricks, which had other four names in the regions of Berounsko and Hořovicko, often constituted supplementary material in combination with timbered constructions or stone masonry. Commonly used were mud bricks for one or even more walls (open-hearth kitchen) or to wall-up a strip from unburnt bricks as a half-storey above the house ground floor.
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The Ethnographical Commission at the Czech Academy of Science and Art was established to utilize effectively the government grant on behalf of the Czech folk culture, especially the Czech folk architecture and folk songs. It worked from 1941 until 1946. With its activities and financial subsidies, it helped bridge the period of protectorate, not propitious for ethnography. In its work, it took into consideration the needs of ethnography in the wide sense of the word, as well as the social aspects. The proposals arisen from two architectural contests of the Ministry of Education were probably the first ones that solved the issue of new construction of farmhouses, taking into consideration the needs of farmhouses of different sizes; as well, they adopted a responsible approach to regional needs, including the outside appearance of the buildings. Because of the development of architecture in the Czech countryside, the above events placed high demands mainly on how to assert and link together the novelties with traditional processes in construction of the village and small-town house. One of the assessment criteria included a requirement for the previous study of local architecture in the field and the corresponding literature. The period of protectorate as well as the following short period of after-war renewal did not allow to use the submitted proposals in practice. The results of the subsequent Survey Action were used neither at that time, nor later. However, they retain a lot of important information for the study of folk architecture, because in many places they captured the last moments of existing traditional housing, especially the wooden one.
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Isolated buildings, such as granaries, did and do not occur to such a large extent in the ethnographic area of Haná, as they did and do in Bohemian regions. Yet especially until the end of the 18th century, the crop and tools were stored in the so-called log house (srub). According to its name, it was probably a timbered building, which was converted into a masonry one at the end of this period. In connection with the fire-protection rules and the changes in roof frame construction, the storage rooms were transferred to the main (habitable) building of the farmstead – first in the form of a two-storeyed larder, which in principle meant the translocation of the log house into the building, and after that in the form of a granary half-storey and storey. Currently, these rooms are not used; they rather have been rebuilt for habitable purpose.
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The aim of the contribution is to highlight the documentary funds related to folk architecture in the regions of Chodsko and Pošumaví, stored at the Chodsko Museum in Domažlice and the Dr. Hostaš Local History Museum in Klatovy. Václav Kohout (1904–1984) was one of the most significant authors of folk architecture documentation in the district of Domažlice, especially that of the house from the region of Chodsko. The author devoted himself to documentary work as early as since the second half of the 1930s when a voluminous set of surveys, aquarelles and drawings evolved, which is stored at the Chodsko Museum in Domažlice. V. Kohout paid his highest attention to document the development of the hearth and especially the open-hearth kitchen. His aquarelles document the timbered house from the region of Chodsko, which had been gradually provided with masonry since the second half of the 18th century.
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A large set of photographs by the architects Miroslav and Věra Chalupníček from 1940 became a basis for the concise analysis of construction styles in the region of Blata (moorland spread between Soběslav and Veselí nad Lužnicí towns). It is stored in archival collections at the Institute of Ethnology AS CR, v.v.i. For the first sketch of the issue of styles, a part of buildings (gable) has been chosen for the submitted contribution. This part was included into a system created based on a chronological analysis that proceeds on dates mentioned on the buildings. The adumbrated hypotheses about the morphology of gables at farmhouses in Blata are documented by photos. Because of the date of their origin – these photos captured even the oldest then preserved horizon of the original timbered housing with wooden folded slabs. The photos also captured masonry buildings with thatched roofs, documented – despite date inscriptions – by the oldest types of gables with distinctive Baroque Style, which later were shaped in the Empire Style and kept the tectonic character of the design. With the development of masonry buildings since the 1830s, the surviving Baroque and Classicistic styles passed to a new quality grasped and transformed by folk settings.
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The article pays attention to the circumstances connected with transfer of the small wooden church of St Paraskevi and its building development. Originally, this church of Marmaros type used to stand in the village of Nižné Seliště in today’s Ukraine. It was built in the mid- 17th century. In the 1930s, it was transferred to the town of Blansko in the South-Moravian Region. The church was ceremonially consecrated on 23 May 1937. As compared to its original location, remodelling made in the new place influenced the appearance of the church. Significant constructional changes were made especially after the Allied bombing of Blansko in May 1945 when the church was significantly damaged. The building is administrated by the Czechoslovak Hussite Church and despite many interventions, it has kept its historical character. The church is one of the most important cultural monuments in the region.
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Wooden and half-wooden sacral buildings, including small sacral constructions, can be found in more funds in the photo-archives at the Institute of Ethnology AS CR, v.v.i. The focus of the contribution is on the funds titled Listing Research of the Czechoslovak Ethnographic Society, which is a result of a large field research made by the Ethnographic Society between 1952 and 1962 under the organization of Karel Chotek and Vilém Pražák. Originally, the research was aimed at the study of the Czech folk culture as a whole; later on, for the time and financial reasons, it focused mainly on the documentation of folk architecture, especially that in the borderlands or regions endangered by mining, hydraulic structures etc.
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Discussion held in Timișoara on June 13-14, 2000 with the members of the cultural studies group "A Treia Europa".
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