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Тюрко-татарские города Западной Сибири в XIV—XVI вв. в археологических и исторических исследованиях

Author(s): Sergey F. Tataurov / Language(s): Russian Publication Year: 0

The author analyzes currently available publications referring to the Turkic Tatar cities and identifies issues that require priority attention in further studies of the Siberian cities. The necessity of broader attraction of archaeological materials is indicated. The specificity of urban settlements location, their fortification systems and internal planigraphy is characterized. Special attention is paid to the collections from the excavations of these sites, the imported items, and the osteological materials. On the basis of the research conducted, a conclusion is made as to the commercial and political importance of the cities as provisional headquarters of the Turkic Tatar rulers.

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Animals for Food in the Golden Horde City of Old Orhei (Republic of Moldova): Topography and Archaeozoological Data

Author(s): Luminiţa Bejenaru,Ludmila Bacumenco-Pîrnău / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

The archaeological level of the Golden Horde period is analyzed, and this assemblage is compared to the level of the 15th—17th centuries in order to account for a diachronical variability of food resources of animal origin on the Old Orhei site.The study of medieval Old Orhei is mainly focused on the diversity of food resources as reflected by the archaeozoological analysis. Previous archaeozoological studies on the medieval period in Old Orhei discussed aspects related to animal species identified on the site and the proportion of wild and domestic species. The consumers of animal products especially differed by their ethnic belonging. Thus, in the period of Mongol (the Golden Horde) occupation, the main domestic species used in alimentation were the sheep/goat (Ovis aries/Capra hircus), the cattle (Bos taurus) and the horse (Equus caballus), while later — after Mongol retreat, the livestock of the local economy was mainly represented by the cattle (Bos taurus) and the pig (Sus domesticus).The hunting records a very low rate (0.24% NISP) during the Golden Horde period; the low occurrence frequency of wild animals’ remains in this cultural level is quite surprising, since the documents of the time contain information emphasizing that the Mongols used to greatly rely on hunting, which was practiced for different purposes: to compensate a food shortage, to secure furs and hides, to keep fit for future battles, etc.

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Горны на курганах (открытие средневекового металлургического квартала в Пскове при раскопках 2016—2019 гг.)

Author(s): Elena V. Salmina,Sergey A. Salmin / Language(s): Russian Publication Year: 0

The rescue archaeological excavations, held on the territory of the former thermal electric power plant in Pskov prior to its renovation, revealed a medieval “metallurgy quarters” which existed on this territory in the 13th—16th centuries beyond the fortification walls. The manufacturing center occurred on the site of the burial grounds of the 10th — first half of the 11th cc. thus having destroyed many burial mounds. It is indicative that the raw materials used by the local metallurgists contained a significant amount of fragmented and deformed jewelry, some of which may have highly likely come from the destroyed burials. To date, no clusters of industrial complexes that occupied such an area in the absence of residential development have been found on the territory of Medieval Pskov. The discovery of such a production quarter in Pskov allows us to revise both the history of urban development and the organization of production processes in one of the largest urban centers of North-Western Russia.

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Śmierć, pogrzeb i upamiętnienie władców (nie tylko) w dawnej Polsce

Author(s): Marek Walczak / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The book examines the problem of death, burials and commemoration of male and female rulers (not only Polish ones) since the late Middle Ages until the beginnings of the 20th century. The articles concern, on the one hand, the private sphere of monarchs’ lives, their religiousness and attitude to death and, on the other, the organisational, political and symbolic aspects of their deaths and funerals.

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Śmierć władcy jako zakłócenie naturalnego porządku rzeczy

Author(s): Urszula Augustyniak / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The article discusses the death of a king as a possessor of power, which is seen as political death. The author attempts to present how posthumous images of Polish kings: Sigismund II August, the last from the Jagiellonian dynasty, and Sigismund III, the first from the Vasa dynasty, were created. She assumes that creating a model image of death can be considered the main factor differentiating death of a ruler as a political leader from death of ordinary people. She distinguishes three phases of political death: 1. the impossibility of personal ruling and its transfer to favourites; 2. focusing on the successor, 3. the media mourning after king’s death, 4. oblivion of the ruler’s death and return to current matters. The author concentrates on observing the evolution of Polish nobility’s attitude to king’s death, seen as political change of quasi-religious character; on questioning immortality of God’s Anointed and in the secular dimension, on questioning his indispensability to the functioning of state and legal order. The interregna were treated not only as disasters, but also as a chance to restore the natural order by the nobility which assumed the majesty of Poland.

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Od pomnika niespełnionych ambicji do pamiątki narodowej. Dzieje nagrobka Władysława Białego w kościele Saint-Bénigne w Dijon

Author(s): Wojciech Sowała / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

Władysław Biały (Władysław the White, died in 1388), was the last prince of the Kuyavian Piast dynasty. At the beginning of his career it was believed that he would become the successor of king Kazimierz Wielki (Casimir III the Great). After king’s death, Władysław tried to take the crown twice, albeit unsuccessfully. He spent the last years of his life in Saint-Bénigne monastery in Dijon, where he was buried. The article examines the iconography and history of the tomb of Władysław Biały. The inscriptions, attire, heraldic programme, spatial context and references to the tombs of the French elites clearly indicate prince’s royal ambition and confirm that the tomb was built straight after Władysław’s death. The second part of the paper presents the history of prince’s memoria, which became one of the attractions of the monastery. The monks cultivated his memory and proudly presented his tomb to visitors. Finally, the presence of Władysław’s monument in 19th century Polish historical literature, popular press, poetry and paintings is analyzed. In that time, the tomb played a certain role as a notional memento in maintaining national identity and in the fight for independence.

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Umieranie, śmierć i pogrzeb w liturgii późnośredniowiecznego Krakowa

Author(s): Jakub Kubieniec / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The article discusses the course and character of the rites connected with dying and burial of the dead as conveyed by medieval Cracow codices. The texts and liturgical formulae connected with these ceremonies and used in Polish local tradition did not single out rulers as special category persons who would be entitled to extraordinary funerary ceremonies. Symbolic gestures and elements of “court liturgy” connected with political theology were incorporated into funerary ceremonies of the rulers. The most spectacular of them, the widely commented fall of a horse rider during the mass for the dead king, is discussed in the article in the context of the remarks passed by Cracow mass liturgists from the 15th century.

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Śmierć, pogrzeb i upamiętnienie polskich królowych w późnym średniowieczu

Author(s): Bożena Czwojdrak / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The funeral of Polish rulers, one of the most important royal ceremonies, is fully described with reference to the period from the late Middle Ages to the 18th century. As far as the 14th and the 15th centuries are concerned, our knowledge is limited to chronicles of that time. It was after Sigismund I the Old died, when the need to formalise the ceremony was acknowledged. Samuel Maciejowski wrote “Ordo pompae funebris serenissimi Sigismundi Regis Poloniae”, which became the model for preparing funerals of Polish rulers. Against this background, the lack or only laconic descriptions of the funerals of Polish queens are particularly striking. There was no due ceremonial until the end of the Commonwealth of Poland, the course of the funerary ceremony is not known, the annalists record deaths of the queens very shortly, not mentioning the ceremonies themselves. This is why the article analyses the deaths, burials and commemoration of late medieval queens, the wives of Władysław Jagiełło: Jadwiga Andegaweńska, Anna Cylejska, Elżbieta Granowska and Zofia Holszańska, as well as Elżbieta Rakuska, the wife of Kazimierz Jagiellończyk and Helena Moskiewska, the wife of Aleksander Jagiellończyk.

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Wiersze na śmierć króla w późnośredniowiecznej Polsce

Author(s): Marcin Starzyński / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The author discusses the 15th-century epicedium, composed by a Silesian humanist thinker, Wawrzyniec Korwin (before 1440-1527) to commemorate the death of king Kazimierz Jagiellończyk (1447-1492). This work was known in literature, but it was not analysed in depth in the context of other works of this kind, which were written in connection with deaths of Polish monarchs. The author uses the unknown until now manuscript from the collection of Niedersächsiche Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Göttingen (the oldest of the recognised). The manuscript contains two other works by Korwin, the description of the funeral ceremony of Kazimierz Jagiellończyk and a verse epitaph. Together they from the largest group of texts written at the time of Polish monarch’s death in the late Middle Ages. Although their topic is still medieval, the phraseology is undoubtedly renaissance. The appendix contains the edition of epicedium.

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Memoria króla Jana Olbrachta w katedrze na Wawelu

Author(s): Barbara Świadek / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The article attempts to describe Jan Olbracht’s memoria in the Wawel Cathedral in the context of late medieval or early modern cultural memory. After the death of the monarch, his mother, Elżbieta Rakuszanka, decided to erect the tomb of her son in a separate chapel. At her command, the chapel of bishop Jan Grot, founded before 1344 and dedicated to John Evangelist and Saint Martha, was chosen; in its western part the tomb of the direct successor of Kazimierz IV Jagiellończyk was erected. The author of the article tries to reconstruct not only the architecture and art decoration of the new space, but also its portable equipment. Most objects commissioned by the Jagiellonians were lost, but the cathedral inventory from 1563 confirms that Olbracht’s memoria did not consist of accidental artefacts. Apart from their high artistic value, most objects referred to the subject of passion, which made them ideal for the chapel and the pietas Jagiellonica policy.

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Uwagi o sensie ideowym figury nagrobnej Zygmunta I Starego

Author(s): Mateusz Grzęda / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The article discusses the meaning of the tomb effigy of Sigismund I the Old in his burial chapel at Cracow cathedral. It has been observed that distinctive way of posing the figure of the king in armour that represents the demi-gisant type could have been inspired by the ancient depictions of gods and heroes. Neoplatonic connotations of such an image were also underlined: a reclining monarch awakening from his sleep indicated the moment when the soul was leaving the body. According to the author appropriating the demi-gisant type for the Cracow tomb effigy was likely to demonstrate the analogy between Sigismund I and Hercules. It referred to the motive of Hercules at the crossroads (Hercules in bivio) based on the story in which the pagan hero, faced with a life choice, decided to follow path of virtue and earned himself eternal glory and salvation. Given the sepulcral context of the chapel, the formula of semi-recumbent effigy of the king must have evoked the association with Hercules as the only hero who was granted immortality. Thus, introducing the ancient pagan formula to the artistic setting of the king’s tomb did not undermine its Christian message – on the contrary, it corresponded perfectly with the eschatological views of Sigismund I, who repeatedly expressed his absolute conviction that kings were to be redeemed.

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„A teraz ostatek srebra i kredens pozłocisty wezmą”, czyli o finansowaniu pogrzebu króla Zygmunta Augusta

Author(s): Agnieszka Januszek-Sieradzka / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

King Sigismund II August bequeathed his entire landholdings as well as his goods and chattels to his three sisters. According to the will, Anna Jagiellonka was also granted the lifelong right to use the so-called Tykocin treasure, in which, since the 60s of the 16th century, the last of the Jagiellonians deposited his chattels. Polish senators and lords tried to prevent the heiresses and especially Anna Jagiellonka from taking possession of the Tykocin chattels. A special occasion which was used as a pretext for depleting the treasure was the funeral of the last Jagiellonian. Polish lords tried to cash in the inheritance in order to pay the costs of the bringing the body of the king to Cracow and organising the funeral itself. The Tykocin deposit was also lent and brought to Cracow in connection with the funeral and the coronation of the dead king’s successor. The sources allow to see the process of diminishing the Tykocin deposit, which was the obvious violation of the last Jagiellonian’s will, leaving Anna Jagiellonka, who was the heiress and custodian of the dynastic memory, completely helpless.

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„Ciało umarłe większego wymaga opatrzenia” – sekcja zwłok polskich królów i królowych od XVI do XVIII wieku w kontekście przygotowań do ceremonii pogrzebowej

Author(s): Jarosław Pietrzak / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The article focuses on post-mortem examinations of Polish kings and queens between 16th and 18th centuries. The attitude of Roman Catholic Church and university circles towards autopsy is discussed. The definition and terminology of the post-mortem examination is provided, different for the past and modern times. The subsequent part of the article addresses the objections the rulers had concerning their autopsies and expressed in their wills, the time, place and the people conducting the post-mortem examinations and the exceptions to the usual conduct. The reasons for autopsies are analysed: the need to learn the cause of death and the verification of the hypothesis about poisoning, the necessity to protect the corpse against decaying until the funeral and a very popular practice of burying different parts of the body, such as heart, liver, tongue and eyes, which started at the end of the 17th century. Finally, corpse embalming and the substances used in the process are described. In conclusion the ceremonious meaning of conducting autopsy and paying respect to the royal majesty are indicated, as well as the phenomenon of transferring the post-mortem examinations from the royal circles to aristocracy and nobility in the course of the 17th and 18th centuries.

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„Spadła Korona nasza z głowy tey białeygłowy, na ktorey z wielką ozdobą y pociechą Krolestwa wszystkiego postawiona świeciła”. Okoliczności śmierci i przebieg ceremonii pogrzebowych królowej Anny Austriaczki, żony Zygmunta III Wazy

Author(s): Aleksandra Barwicka-Makula / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The article discusses the last moments in the life of the Polish queen, Anne of Austria (1592-1598). It focuses on the reasons for her premature death on 10th February, 1598, and shows the reaction of the people closest to her: deep grief of the court (Urszula Meyerin, Fabian Quadrantinus, Piotr Skarga, Bernard Gołyński, Stanisław Fogelweder, Georg Schiechel, Barbara Warschenhauserin) and utter despair of king Sigismund III. The main part of the article concentrates on the funerary ceremony: lying in state at the Royal Castle in Warsaw, the temporary burial in St. John’s Cathedral in Warsaw, the cortège to Cracow, the funerary ceremony on 16th October 1599. The author describes complicated preparations for the funeral (the expenses, diplomatic activities, devising the ceremonial) and its course, using different sources such as letters, sermons, bills, diplomatic instructions.

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Przyczyny zgonów Gryfitów (1600-1637)

Author(s): Joanna A. Kościelna / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The article aims to present the information concerning the state of health and the causes of death of the last Griffins. According to the collected data, it can be assumed that internal diseases (ulcers, gastrointestinal perforations) may have caused deaths of Ernest Ludwik, Jan Fryderyk, Barnim X/XII, Bogusław XIII, and Filip Juliusz. Two strokes led to the death of Bogusław XIV. The sources also confirm: rheumatoid disease (Filip II), kidney and liver diseases (Kazimierz IX), various depressive states (Jan Fryderyk, Kazimierz IX, Barnim X/XII, Filip II, Ulryk I, perhaps Filip Juliusz), lungs diseases (Jerzy I, Filip I, Sybilla). The Griffins also suffered from eye diseases, which were caused by accidents (Jerzy I, Jerzy II/III). In the analysed material it was not possible to find (with the exception of Kazimierz VIII, who died in 1518) the information which could support the argument that the Griffins suffered from venereal diseases although some of the symptoms may indicate so.

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Propagandowy wymiar pogrzebu Bogusława XIV

Author(s): Monika Ogiewa-Sejnota / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

When the last ruler from the Griffins, Bogusław XIV, died in 1637, the Duchyof Pomerania was still a war zone during the Thirty Years’ War. Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden had forced Bogusław XIV to give his duchy under the rule of Sweden if he died without a successor. It was against the earlier pacts, signed between the rulers of Pomerania and Brandenburg, which guaranteed Brandenburg the takeover of the Griffins’ lands. Due to unclear succession, there was no successor who would give the burial to the deceased ruler. The body of the last Pomeranian ruler waited for 14 years waited to be buried. The funeral took place on 25th May 1654 and was the result of the agreement between Sweden and Brandenburg, which sanctioned the division of Pomerania between the two countries. The funerary ceremony was of propaganda character as the new successors – the Swedish queen, Christina and the Brandenburg elector Friedrich Wilhelm – wanted to stress the fact that the indigenous dynasty has died out and the country was to be administered by new powers.

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Castrum doloris Jana Kazimierza i Michała Wiśniowieckiego

Author(s): Maria Kałamajska-Saeed / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

Polish royal ceremonial required that the coronation of a new monarch took placedirectly after a solemn burial of the predecessor at the Wawel Cathedral. In the historyof Poland only once, on 31st January 1676, before the coronation of Jan Sobieski, thefuneral of his two predecessors took place: Jan Kazimierz, who died on 16th December1672 in France was buried there, and Michał Wiśniowiecki, who died on 1st September􀁢1673. The unique character of this event made it especially impressive, which isunanimously confi rmed in the accounts of the witnesses, who describe the course andgrandeur of the ceremony. As the historians could only use written sources thus far,the iconographic document which is presented in the material carries considerableweight. It is a castrum doloris drawing, bearing the title: The Depiction of the Catafalqueof Two Polish Monarchs at the Conducted Funeral of Jan Casimir and Michael I [MichałKorybut Wiśniowiecki] in 1676 at the Wawel Castle in Cracow , which was found bythe author of the article in the Manuscript Department of the National Library of Russiain Petersburg. It is not artistically perfect, but when compared with the descriptions,it confi rms that the appearance of the object is correct; the character of the writingshows that the drawing was made in 1676 or around that year. It is not certain if theanonymous draughtsman made it from nature, but neither its formal fl aws, nor itsimitative nature make it less interesting and worth further research. Such an interestingpolonicum should not be lost among the varia of the Petersburg Library, but madeavailable to wider range of scholars, who would be able to conduct more detailedresearch on it.

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Rzymskie uroczystości pogrzebowe Marii Klementyny Sobieskiej

Author(s): Aleksandra Skrzypietz / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

Maria Clementina Sobieska, the granddaughter of king Jan III, the daughter of his oldest son Jakub, and Elżbieta con Pfalz-Neuburg, was the heiress to her grandfather’s achievements and a relative of many European rulers. She married James Stuart, whom she bore two sons, Charles Edward and Henry Benedict. It was hoped that they would regain the British throne for the Stuarts. When her husband deprived her of the right to take care of the children and visit them, Maria Clementina left his court and devoted herself to religious practices and charity work. Young, very popular in Rome and deeply respected by the popes, she died in 1735. Shortly after her death, her beatification process started, during which the witnesses spoke about the last moments of the queen. The papal court decided to organise a solemn funeral. Her heart was buried in the Church of the Twelve Holy Apostles and her body in Saint Peter’s Basilica, where a magnificent tomb was erected. A funeral mass, commemorated with a special brochure, was also celebrated in Fano. Numerous members of the clergy as well as many ordinary people participated in the ceremonies, remembering the deceased with sorrow. The preachers presented her descent and deeds, which was undoubtedly meant to maintain Stuarts’ vanishing fame and their claims to the lost throne.

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Najstarsze fotografie nagrobka Kazimierza Wielkiego

Author(s): Anna Bednarek / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

Casimir III the Great’s tomb in the Wawel Cathedral has very early and detailed photographic records, only partly published. It confirms the interest in the tomb in the19th century as the object not only seen and documented as a work of art, but also as a symbolic object evoking the figure of the king and Polish history. The first photographs of the tomb were taken in the 60s of the 19th century, before it was renovated in 1869, by local photographers (Walery Rzewuski, Ignacy Krieger) and by Andreas Groll from Vienna. During the renovation, Krieger took photographs of two slabs of the tomb, which made it possible to document their state from before the conservation. When the remains of the king were discovered in the sarcophagus, Rzewuski photographed the insignia and other found objects. Thanks to Józef Łepkowski’s efforts, he took another three photographs of the king’s remains in the coffin and the sarcophagus containing it. After the renovation was finished, Krieger and the photographers from the French studio of J. Lachenal, L. Favre et Cie documented the whole monument.

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Między historią a fantazją. Nekropolia królewska w katedrze na Wawelu w początkach wieku XX

Author(s): Marek Walczak / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

At he end of the restauration conducted under the supervision of Sławomir Odrzywolski (1887-1904) in the Wawel Cathedral, an attempt to reorder the local historical tradition was made. Its most important act was founding monuments to Queen Jadwiga and Władysław Warneńczyk by Karol Lanckoroński, which were commissioned from Antoni Madeyski in Rome. Both works executed in materials carrying entirely different symbolic connotations (white marble and bronze) not only become part of historical studies and reflect on the past, but also constitute national mythology and reflect the past imaginarium, still rooted in romantic tradition. The unappreciated tomb of Władysław III seems a unique work of art, executed with great diligence and embedded in literary and art tradition. The tomb was modelled on the sepulchre of Gaston de Foix, who, leading French troops against the Holy League, was killed at the age of 23 in the battle of Ravenna (1512). He was one of the best-known historical heroes in the 19th century. Władysław III, like Gaston, was killed in a battle at a young age; they were both tragic characters and their deaths could have been interpreted as punishment. Gaston led French royal armies against the pope, Władysław, convinced by the papal nuncio Giuliano Cesarini, broke the truce signed with sultan Murad II in Szeged.

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