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Medieval Hanseatic merchants travelled to many places around Europe. It sounds trivial, but the fact that they were foreigners outside their own city-walls, caused many problems, i.a. in regard to their integration in the religious landscape abroad. To begin with, the following article shortly outlines the conditions of the pratique réligieuse of foreigners in the Orbis Catholicus. It shows what rules governed the life and death of foreigners in the religious sense, how and where Hanseatic merchants were allowed to attend masses, to confess and to take the holy communion; it also reveals what laws applied in the case of death in regard to the last unction and the burial. Secondly, the ways Hanseatic merchants handled different situations abroad were analysed. One may indicate their own chronological and geographical dimensions; the questions of power are also touched upon. It was stated that the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215 constituted a turning point, because it made the parish become a stable institution. Prior to 1215, merchants had been able to take their own priest with them or to establish their own churches abroad, as they were also later able to do this outside of the Orbis Catholicus. Nevertheless, after 1215 they had to adjust to the conditions inside the Catholic world, which made them adopt different approaches. If they were powerful enough, they could get their own parish churches or parish rights, like it was in the case of Visby, Riga, Bergen or the Scanian Fairs. Yet, it created new problems. If they were not powerful enough to have their own standing, they were integrated into the existing parishes abroad. There they tried to distinguish themselves by creating their own symbols or chapels inside the parish churches. However, it also caused complications, e.g. in the case of confession. How to confess and to get the absolution when the confessor did not understand the penitent? Mendicant orders could fill the gap, but this solution created even more problems. By taking a closer look at various areas of the Hanseatic trade, from Novgorod and Polotsk to London and Bruges, this article shows, in a more systematic manner, different solutions of the problems caused by ecclesiastical law and practical life. In the end, it can be shown that Hanseatic merchants abroad constituted an integral part of the sacred landscape of these foreign places, not only by using it, but also by actively shaping it. In this way, they were no longer foreigners abroad, but fratres Christiana.
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After the Second World War, the region of Western Pomerania changed its religious face from Protestant to Catholic as a result of political decisions. As the Polish territory was moved to the west, the influence of the Roman Catholic Church also shifted. Not only secular settlers but also priests had to adjust to those exceptional circumstances. Usually treated as part of the institution they created, they have not yet been fully described as one of the groups of migrants. However, their role was crucial for the settlement and land development by believers, the Church and the Polish state. The aim of the article is to answer the questions who those clergymen were and how they dealt with this unusual challenge. In the literature on the subject, such issues as settlement processes in the Western and Northern Territories, the creation of the church administration, and relations between the state and the church have been widely described. Relations between priests and believers or relations among clergymen themselves are still less known. The documents available in the archives of state and church provenance allow to examine the priestly environment, which also underwent the stage of adaptation and integration with the foreign material and social environment. The historical and comparative method of research led to the establishment of several conclusions, including the most important one that the priests who came to Western Pomerania in the first decade after the war were not homogeneous. Their diversity concerned origin, education, customs or age, but also their attitude towards the so-called Regained Territories, their duties, church discipline or the new authority in Poland. This disintegration, often accompanied by prejudices and stereotypes, constituted the specificity of the religious life of the region and from this point of view is worth examining.
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When discussing the composition of the Polish and Lithuanian provinces of the Society of Jesus, this article is part of the trend of prosopographic and socio-historical research devoted to the clergy of the Roman Catholic Church. The aim of the research is to grasp both permanent elements and changes that took place in the structure of the Jesuit community in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The author not only presents similarities and differences in the development of the Polish and Lithuanian provinces, but also discusses the trends occurring in their area in a wide pan-European context, comparing the situation of Polish and Lithuanian Jesuits with other administrative units of the order. The chronological scope of the work covers the years 1608–1773, i.e. from the creation of the Lithuanian province as a result of the division of the Polish administrative unit of the order to the dissolution of the Society. The base of primary sources consists of annual and three-year catalogues kept in the Roman Archives of the Society of Jesus, which were analyzed in the form of survey using statistical methods. Against the background of the development of the institution’s network and its financial situation, the author focuses on four issues: the number of Jesuits, their religious vows, their geographical distribution and regions of origin. The conducted research above all shows the influence of the political and military situation of the state on the size of the Jesuit community: the wars of the mid-17th century and, albeit to a lesser extent, the first decade of the 18th century brought serious consequences. The structure of the community in terms of religious vows evolved in a similar way to other European provinces of the Society, as indicated by the increase in the number of professes of four religious vows, who constituted the elite of the order. This phenomenon testifies to the fact that, despite the crises that affected the Commonwealth, the order provided its members with better and better education. The geographical distribution and regions of origin of the Jesuits are closely related, since the recruitment of candidates for the order took place mostly among graduates of Jesuit schools. The most important change in this respect was the increase in the significance of the eastern territories of the Commonwealth both in terms of the number of friars residing there and the participation of representatives of local society in the Jesuit community. As a result of this tendency, in the 18th century the role of the inhabitants of the ethnically Polish territories of the Commonwealth weakened; in the previous century they had constituted, due to their geographical mobility, a substantial part of the Jesuit community in the eastern regions of the Polish-Lithuanian state. This phenomenon clearly indicates the process of cultural integration that took place in the eastern lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and changes in the social mechanism of recruiting friars, manifested in the increase in the number of Jesuits of noble origin.
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For centuries, our hymnbooks bring to the fore not only the issue of musical literacy but also tradition. The Reformed church singing in Transylvania and the Partium was determined by traditions rather than by the sheet music itself. From the beginning of the 19th century the Transylvanian hymnbooks were created under the influence of the spirit of the time. A typical example of this is the hymnbook edited under the influence of theological rationalism in 1837. The hymnbook, edited by Seprődi János in 1908, only partially corrected the melody deterioration while the edition of 1923 further preserved the sorting of cut and leveled melodies, which lacked psalms and old Hungarian songs. If we compare the 1837 hymnbook with the one published in 1921 in Debrecen, which also provides balanced melodies, we can see that melodies enriched with melisma remain in practice in Transylvania and this tradition is still preserved in many places to this day.
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Székely József: Hivatás a hivatal árnyékában. Az igehirdetés helye az erdélyi magyar református lelkipásztori hivatáskép alakulásában. Igehirdetői önképünk és öntudatunk változása az 1990–2014 közötti időszakban. Exit Kiadó, Kolozsvár 2019, ISBN 978-973-7803-91-7, 262 old. (Málnási Ferenc)
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The historiography of the Diocese of Warmia has so far lacked a study on military chaplaincy in the first half of the nineteenth century. In order to investigate this issue, an analysis of the documentation stored at the Geheimes Staatsarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz in Berlin has been conducted. The results of the study demonstrated that the Catholic military chaplaincy began to recover after the Napoleonic campaign of 1806–1807. In 1810, Catholic priests performed regular ministerial service in four cities. However, in 18 garrisons services were not performed. As a result, soldiers could receive their sacraments in Catholic churches only if they obtained passes. The first legal solutions of 1811 did not provide for the existence of a Catholic chaplaincy during peacetime. Some significant changes occurred in 1832. In the absence of a military chaplain, a clergyman working in a civil parish was to take over his function. By the end of that year, priests from Warmia served regularly in garrisons in Braniewo, Elblag, Klaipeda, Konigsberg, Malbork and Tilsit. Another 15 garrisons were to receive a chaplain. Some of them served in several garrisons. The issue of financing military chaplains remained unresolved for quite a long time. In February 1835, the Minister of War, Job von Witzleben, informed that chaplains recruited from the diocesan clergy received allowances, reimbursement for travel expenses and four thalers for their chaplaincy. However, some military places of worship suffered from a shortage of liturgical equipment.
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In this study, we briefly outline the possible sources of a disputation written by the Transylvanian polyhistor Sámuel Kaposi and make reserved statements about the authorship and originality of this disputation. Our aim is to draw attention to this interesting text, which is perhaps the first Hungarian work dealing with spiritual desertion, a topic peculiar to English and Dutch Puritans.
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In this paper I present a thorough examination of Laszló Ravasz’s publications from the period 1901–1903, when he was a student of the Protestant Theological Seminary and the State University of Cluj/Kolozsvár. In this period, he shows signs of uncertainty whether to become a Reformed minister or a journalist, novelist, or critic. This period of life of a student is typically characterised by an interest in almost everything. He writes more than forty poems, short novels, theatrical critics, but most often he relates about the student life in the magazine Kolozsvári Egyetemi Lapok. He attempts to follow well-known journalist of his time. His descriptive writings demonstrate how good a writer he was already in the early years of his career.
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A syllogism (Greek: συλλογισμός – “conclusion, inference”) is a kind of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion based on two or more propositions that are asserted or assumed to be true. Aristotle defines the syllogism as “a discourse in which certain (specific) things having been supposed, something different from the things supposed results of necessity because these things are so”. The Aristotelian syllogism dominated Western philosophical thought for many centuries in the Middle Ages. But the history of syllogistic thinking does not end with the Middle Ages. It continued to be used even by the church reformers of the 16th century. Thus, alongside a dialectic way of thinking, it contributed to the development of the new dogmatics coined by the church reformers in the 16th century.
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Szabados Ádám: Az apostolok hagyománya. Károli könyvek – Monográfia. Károli Gáspár Református Egyetem – L’Harrmattan, Budapest 2020. ISBN 978-963-414-658-2, 350 old. (Steiner József)
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Review: Altarul Banatului. Revista Mitropoliei Banatului. XXX (LXIX) új folyam, 2019/4–6. április–június, ISSN 1220-8388, ISSN 9 771220-838001, 160 old. (Bányai László)
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D. Tóth Judit – Papp György (szerk.): Az egyházatyák a reformáció és az ellenreformáció korában. Válogatás a Magyar Patrisztikai Társaság XVIII. konferenciáján elhangzott előadások szerkesztett változataiból. Studia Patrum VIII. A Magyar Patrisztikai Társaság kiadványai. Hernád Sárospatak 2019. ISBN 978-615-5787-08-9, 193 old. (Pap Levente)
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Ledán M. István: A halál mint álom. Az újszövetségi álomeszkatológia az ókori görög sírfeliratok tükrében (Adorjáni Zoltán)
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It is not disputed that the Second Vatican Council (1962—1965) was one of the most important events not only in the history of the Catholic Church, but also throughout the 20th century. Pope Francis described it as “the beautiful work of the Holy Spirit” and many historians underscore the constant need to study the said event. Guided by these conclusions and postulates, which featured in the issue of Verbum Vitae devoted to the Holy Spirit in the Church, the presented article focuses on the image of the Second Vatican Council on the pages of an unusual and rarely analysed historiographic source, namely, school textbooks in history. To this aim, several studies were selected for the purposes of the analysis, which students of Polish schools had the opportunity to use during the recent few years. It shows that, based on most of the school handbooks analysed, students have the opportunity to learn the most important facts related to the Second Vatican Council. In addition, the textbooks appreciated the role of popes — John XXIII and Paul VI.
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The article provides an overview (both in terms of types and amount) of liturgical paraphernalia (vessels, vestments, and processional items), musical instruments (organs and bells), and other items of church interior (pews, candlesticks, chandeliers, commemorative plaques, sacristy furniture, boxes for holy oils, offering boxes, wallpapers, sepulchral banners, and stoups) extant in the parish churches of the diocese of Samogitia in the first half of the seventeenth century. The overview is based on the information contained in visitation acts and inventories due to the fact that only a few material pieces of sacral art dating back to the mentioned period have survived until now. Historical sources enabled a description of the whole repertoire of liturgical paraphernalia of the parish churches of the above-mentioned diocese (in the first half of the seventeenth century) for the first time. The overview reveals some transformations of the older practice, occasionally witnessed in local sources of the sixteenth century. More significantly, it enables future research based on a comparison of the described material with the information contained in wider chronological and geographical (first of all, including the diocese of Vilnius) contexts.
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Its area of evangelization of South Cameroon, missionaries of the MPA had introduced the ideas of freedom and autonomy among his flock to fight against French colonization and allow the political and social empowerment of black people. However, after the Second World War, while political leaders molded in schools of the MPA were fighting for the independence of Cameroon, African employees the Mission and trained to the awakening of consciousness began to assert their masters, the improvement of working conditions and the handling of the management of the heritage of the Mission. The pressure of the black clergy had pushed the MPA to grant independence to the missionary field giving birth, December 11th, 1957, in the Cameroonian Presbyterian Church (EPC). With the withdrawal of the American missionaries, the problem of the management of an important heritage designed since the end of the 19e century arose, because pastors African, few in number, but avid authority, had not received the training required to ensure the relay of these Apostles of good new and well trained to the task to ensure the technical work in different medical institutions, schools, agricultural. So far, the problem remains real in this church, the opposite of self-propagating who brought the early Church to create more than 500 parishes in fifty years of independence.
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The article considers the significance of the personality of Archbishop Ambrose (Shchurov), who managed the diocese of Ivanovo (Ivanovo-Voznesensk) and Kineshma in 1977—2006 for the formation of the Orthodox intelligentsia in the Ivanovo region in 1990—2006. The memoirs of its representatives are given, reflecting their personal experience of communication with the Arch-pastor. Archbishop Ambrose was for many years a member of the editorial Board of the scientific journal “Intelligentsia and the world”. The article is devoted to the 90th anniversary since the birth of this Hierarch of the Russian Orthodox Church, who made a considerable contribution to building dialogue between the Church and the intelligentsia in the region, and many Church representatives of intelligentsia.
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The venerable Nicetas Stethatos lived and worked in a very difficult period for the Church of Christ. He was a very fruitful theologian writer. The most frequent themes in his writings are dogmatic issues popular in the time he wrote. On the Confession of Faith is a very significant work, in which the author expresses his Orthodox faith, written in accordance with his past experience. Theology must be experimental and experienced to be a true celebration of God. That is why — in this modest contribution to the history of the Christian Church — the Orthodox faith in Constantinople in the mid-11th century was translated into Serbian with a comparative original.
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