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In the 17–18th centuries the interest for works concerning the history of Protestantism in Hungary and Transylvania has increased. Such an opus is the Historia Ecclesiae Reformatae in Hungaria et Transilvania (1706) by Pál Debreceni Ember. The author of this ecclesiastical history not only presents the history of the Reformed Church in Hungary, but he also tries to present the origin of the Hungarian Christianity projecting it onto the apostolic period. To prove his theory, he turns to the early Christian writers. The aim of this paper is to present the reception of his sources.
More...Ἄρατε πύλας (Псалм 23[24], 7-10). Иконографията на Христос, отварящ вратите Адови
This paper investigates the iconographic depiction of Christ opening the doors of Hades. The discussion is focused on the Resurrection ceremony as it is outlined in the liturgical manuscripts. This particular iconographic theme, which functioned as a kind of “sketch” for the illustrative representation of the scene, emerged in the middle-Byzantine period and the artists of the Palaiologan period used it as a source from which they borrowed iconographic elements that they later transferred to the illustration of the Resurrection. These elements were also borrowed by artists of the Italian Renaissance, who employed them in the relevant iconography. At a later time, the Palaiologan and Renaissance iconographic elements were used in combination by artists of North-Western Greece School in frescoes dating from the second phase of the Post-Byzantine period.
More...Reflection on the pastoral letter of the Episcopal Conference of Poland
Kościół jako instytucja, ale i wspólnota wierzących, jest częścią społeczeństwa. Jest zatem obecny w przestrzeni dziejących się w nim procesów i zmian. Społeczeństwo rozciągnięte jest w napięciu między konfliktem a harmonią. Konferencja Episkopatu Polski podjęła w tym kontekście refleksję w postaci listu nad problematyką bieżących zagadnień społecznych w polskim społeczeństwie. Skupiony jest on na temacie konieczności wspólnego wysiłku na rzecz dialogu i ładu wobec istniejących destrukcyjnych zjawisk. List ten stał się perspektywą dla podjęcia namysłu nad takimi elementami życia społecznego jak: społeczna misja Kościoła, konflikt, solidarność, prawda, dialog. Omówienie poszczególnych zagadnień czerpie z Tradycji i nauczania Magisterium Kościoła. Podjęta refleksja jest próbą argumentowania na rzecz dialogu społecznego, który jest konieczny zwłaszcza w coraz bardziej pluralistycznym, a tym samym pełnym napięć, społeczeństwie. Rzeczywisty dialog zawiera w sobie skierowanie na szacunek i dążenie do rozwiązań w perspektywie poszukiwania prawdy i z uwzględnieniem ludzkiej godności.
More...Charakterystyka zjawisk meteorologicznych oraz analiza zmian wprowadzonych w Septuagincie i Wulgacie
Przedmiotem artykułu są dwa rodzaje wiatru występujące w opisie plagi szarańczy: wiatr wschodni oraz zachodni, oraz wpływ tych zjawisk meteorologicznych na rozumienie tekstu Wj 10,13.19. Tekst przedstawia cechy charakterystyczne wiatru wschodniego i zachodniego na terenie Palestyny i Egiptu, czyli miejsc, w którym zostały osadzone wydarzenia. Ponadto zostały przedstawione różnice występujące między tekstem hebrajskim i Septuagintą, Vulgatą oraz tłumaczeniem polskim.
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W 1457 r. papież Kalikst III wydał na prośbę księcia cieszyńsko-głogowskiego Władysława zgodę na ufundowanie poza murami miasta Góra klasztoru i kościoła pw. Bożego Ciała. W bulli zapisano, że fundacja miała być przeznaczona dla franciszkanów-obserwantów (bernardynów). Ostatecznie jednak nowy konwent zasiedlili franciszkanie-minoryci. Była to ostatnia na średniowiecznych ziemiach polskich fundacja klasztoru franciszkańskiego.Klasztor w Górze należał pod względem organizacji zakonnej do kustodii gnieźnieńskiej w czesko-polskiej prowincji franciszkanów. Oficjalny dokument fundacyjny klasztoru książę wystawił w 1458 r. W 1462 r. papież Pius II zatwierdził fundację nowego domu zakonnego wraz z jego uposażeniem, powołując się na wcześniejszą zgodę biskupa wrocławskiego Piotra II Nowaka (1447–1456), władz miejskich Góry i miejscowego proboszcza. Konwent górowski najprawdopodobniej został obsadzony przez zakonników z Głogowa, za czym przemawiać może bliskość obu tych miast i podległość jednemu władcy. Inspirację tego dzieła przypisuje się górowskiemu bractwu Bożego Ciała. Klasztor zbudowano na przedmieściu, przy drodze do wsi Kajęcin. Jego uposażenie gospodarcze było bardzo skromne. Początkowo obejmowało tylko grunt na postawienie budynków, staw rybny i kawałek roli. Nieco rozszerzył je w 1468 r. książę cieszyńsko-głogowski Przemko II – brat fundatora i jego następca. W początku XVI w. klasztor podupadł i zaczął wyprzedawać swe posiadłości. Wskutek szerzącej się reformacji, ok. 1534 r. klasztor został całkowicie opuszczony przez zakonników, a jego majątek biskup wrocławski Jakub von Salza przekazał proboszczowi parafii pw. św. Katarzyny w Górze.
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The famous letter of Pliny the Younger concerning Bithynian Christians was widely commented by the lawyers, historians, theologians etc. Many generations of researchers tried to justify the conduct of Pliny and the later reaction of Trajan to it. From the legal point of view everything seemed to be fine. As a Roman governor Pliny was obliged to take any steps to retain the public order in his province. Yet, no one dared to ask whether he had to appeal to such drastic methods. It seems that he had not to. His conduct in relation to the Bithynian Christians destroys prevalent image of Pliny as a well-educated humanist and sensitive aesthete. The whole story puts in quite bad light also his superior – the emperor Trajan.
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While the first wave of Christianization in China in the 13th and 14th century is associated with the Franciscan order, the Jesuits were the pillars of its second wave from the 16th to 18th century. The activities of the Jesuits in China can be described as the most massive and significant presence of Europeans and European culture until then. The fact that some of them were active long after the ban on Christianity by the Chinese emperor in 1724 and the ban on Jesuit order by the pope in 1773 is undoubtedly an indisputable proof of the importance of the Jesuits in China. The last of them acted in Beijing until 1813. The reasons for the success of the Jesuits in comparison with the failure of other Europeans to establish themselves in China can be summarized in two points. First, they learned the Chinese language and Chinese culture and were able to deal with the Chinese at the appropriate intellectual level. They convinced sceptical officials that Christianity had a long tradition in China and that to respect Christianity is in the spirit of the Confucian principle of reverence for ancestors.
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The first part of the paper offers an overall and detailed survey of the reception and image of yoga in various types of Romanian dictionaries (linguistic, encyclopedic, specialized, etc.), while the second part is reserved for a special discussion of the dictionaries devoted to religion during the Communist era.Three words, with their derivates, have been taken into consideration: “fakir” (“fakirism”, “fakiric”, “fakiristic”, etc.), “yoga” (“yogism”, “yogistic”, “yogin”/ “yogist”, etc.), and “tantra” (“tantrism”, “tantric”, “tantrist”, etc.). The timeframe covers the 20th century till the end of 1989, with incursions before (for “fakir”, etc.) and after (for “yoga”, “tantra”, etc.) this period.The survey offers ample material for a discussion on influences between diction¬aries and cases of intertextuality, as well as on the impact of political contexts on understanding yoga and the interpretative patterns which survive political eras.
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On the basis of available sources and selected literature, the author presents some information and insights about the insufficiently researched ecclesial and lay past of Podgorje in the modern and contemporary period. Until demilitarisation in 1873 and the return of the Military Frontier under the administration of the ban in 1881 Podgorje was divided between the Smiljan company in the Lika and the Sveti Juraj company in the Otok regiment. Only Karlobag was a military community,a ‘castellanat’ and free port. From 1809 to 1813 Podgorje was under French rule within MilitaryCroatia as part of the Illyrian Provinces, and then again under Austrian (Habsburg) rule. The local people were Croats, mostly Catholics and speakers of Štokavian. They were poor peasants who during the Military Frontier period also served military service. They cultivated the poor land, bredcattle on the slopes of Velebit, made clothes and simple footwear, cut trees for masts, fished, begged and were rarely involved in any small business. Inhabitants along the sea dressed "po gradsku" ("in the town style"), whilst those in the hills "po bunjevačku" ("like the Bunjevci"), as Podgorje priests wrote in 1850. Between the two world wars, the majority of the people of Podgorje still lived the established pastoral life according to the ways that were passed from generation to generation.Always in need, more hungry than full, they lacked drinking water, e.g. in Cesarica in 1937 there was one well for the one thousand inhabitants. The developmental lagging behind of Podgorje during the time of the monarchical Yugoslavia continued after the ordeals of the Second World Wart hrough the stagnation of the place during socialist Yugoslavia. The completion of the construction of the Adriatic highway – the magistrale – in 1965 helped the development of tourism, particularlyin Karlobag which gained a motel and ferry dock, however the lack of drinking water, the dumping of rubbish into the sea, the illegal construction of buildings and other problems hindered this development. At the same time political life was under the monopoly of the party, the Catholic Church was separate from the state and socially marginalised, and the emigration of people and the fall in the birth rate took on cataclysmic dimensions. Under such conditions Podgorje faced the Homeland War and the state independence of the Republic of Croatia.
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Die Ikonographie spielt eine wichtige Rolle, um die christliche Kunst verstehen zu können. Die romanische Kunst in Schlesien trat zusammen mit dem Christentum und dem Beginn der sakralen Architektur auf. Zu dieser Zeit, das heißt am Ende des 10. Jahrhunderts und bis zum Anfang des 13. Jahrhunderts, waren die Orden in Schlesien von großer Bedeutung. Die schlesische Plastik im 12. Jahrhundert zeigt norditalienische Einflüsse, was man auf dem Tympanon der Prämostratenserkirche auf dem Elbing sieht, womit ich mich in dieser Arbeit ikonographisch und stilistisch beschäftigen werde. Im Folgendem werde ich mich mit den Evangelien als literarische und ikonographische Grundlagen befassen, sowie auch mit der Ikonographie und den Darstellungsformen in Italien im 12. Jahrhundert. In dieser Arbeit werde ich der Frage nachgehen, wie das Verhältnis der romanischen Plastik zur Antike sowie wie die wechselseitige Verbindung zwischen Kunst und Religion beschaffen ist.
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Stotinu je godina prošlo od smrti Abrahama Kuypera (1837. – 1920.), nizozemskog pastora, teologa, urednika i novinara, utemeljitelja političke stranke i sveučilišta te premijera. Bio je to čovjek koji je svim srcem, punim plućima i uz tri živčana sloma, provodio kao životni moto svoju možda najpoznatiju izjavu: O, ni jedno mjesto u našem mentalnom svijetu ne smije biti hermetičko zatvoreno od ostatka te ne postoji ni jedan kubni centimetar u cijeloj domeni ljudskog postojanja nad kojom Krist, koji je Suveren nad svime, ne kaže: „Moje!” (Kuyper 1998, 488)
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Bardziej niż duszpasterskiego III Soboru Watykańskiego potrzebujemy dziś mocnego doktrynalnego otwarcia – nowego Trydentu. Od chrześcijaństwa odchodzą na Zachodzie całe masy wiernych. „Nowy Trydent” to teologiczna i duchowa odpowiedź na współczesne lęki postwierzących.
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The second International Multidisciplinary Conference Mongols: Traditions and Modernity took place on September 11–13, 2019 at the Russian State University for the Humanities (RSUH), Moscow.1 The meeting was organized by the Centre for Typological and Semiotic Folklore Studies (RSUH), the Institute for Oriental and Classical Studies (the Higher School of Economics, Russia), the Department for Estonian and Comparative Folklore (University of Tartu, Estonia), and the Institute for Mongolian Studies (National University of Mongolia, Mongolia).
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Protopresbyter-Stavrophor Stevan M. Dimitrijevich was the first Serbian scholar who systematically examined Serbian-Russian Church connections throughout the History. He began research in this field during his studies on The Spiritual Academy in Kiev in the last decade of the nineteenth century. He examined in details materials related to the Serbian Church History in the Archives of The Russian Royal Office of External Affairs in Moscow and The Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church in Saint Petersburg. Dimitrijevich wrote one of the best Serbian candidate dissertations on Russian spiritual academies in 1898. It was related to diplomatic missions of the representatives from the Serbian Orthodox Church to Russia from the fifteenth to the eighteenth century. Stevan Dimitrijevich continued his work in the same field upon his return to the homeland. He published an article about Serbian-Russian Church relationships in the seventeenth century in the scientific journal of the Serbian Royal Academy in 1900 and 1901. That article caught the attention of the key representatives of the Serbian Church historiography of that time. Among them were Archimandrite Ilarion (Ruvarac), Archimandrite Nicephor (Ducich), and Milutin Jaksich. Dimitrijevich published the Russian archive materials about the Serbian Orthodox Church in publications of the Serbian Royal Academy during the years and decades to follow. These archive materials are still an unavoidable source for any serious research in the field of Serbian-Russian Church relations. Stevan M. Dimitrijevich concluded his work with the synthetic study about Serbian-Russian Church relations from the twelfth until the twentieth century. It was published in The Calendar of the Serbian Orthodox Church for the Year of 1948. Stevan M. Dimitrijevich‘s legacy placed him among the best experts on Serbian-Russian Church relations, as well as spiritual and cultural connections.
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Incarnation, as defined in its simplistic form, in which God assumes a human nature, is at the heart of Christian doctrine. The uniqueness of the Incarnation, in Christian doctrine as opposed to other religious traditions, is incorporated into and among other Bible texts and into the Gospel according to John 1:1–18. This article will discuss some of the philosophies that existed at the time, which supposedly influenced the Gospel of Saint John. Thus, we will try to understand how some of these philosophies interpret incarnation in forms that do not necessarily reflect incarnation as is traditionally understood in Christianity (where God becomes flesh). This article opted for a special structure of consolidation, primarily from the belief that the Gospel of John differs from historical and contemporary philosophical tradition to the time it was written and therefore begins with the removal of Gnostic philosophies and teachings that have been assimilated in the Gospel of John. This indicated the independence and uniqueness of the writing of the evangelist John. The article also provides a list of fundamental beliefs by Christians of incarnate logos also supported by some historians the first and second century. These beliefs are then compared to concepts such as theophany, apotheosis, theosis, deification, canonization, anthropomorphism, to which Huxley is alluded to, as being equated with logos.
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The present study aims to prove the importance of the formative valence of the religious education, in forming and development of the moral conscience and conduct of the young generation, in the context of major changes, brought by postmodernism. Economists, political scientists, historians, sociologists and theologians analyze from each point of view, the crisis in which the humanity is struggling today. This crisis has many facets; it is caused by historical reasons but also current ones and, in turn, it generates, on medium and long term, the unpredictable effects, but certainly harmful to humans. In the current context, the worst part of this crisis is the religious, spiritual one; it’s the drama of man who is losing his soul identity, because firstly he lost his national, cultural and educational identity. This phenomenon occurs because man today doesn’t receive a good education anymore, to fortify him for the battle with life and to offer him the conditions of a normal spiritual and human growth.
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The Livonian Chronicle of Henry is one of the most important cornerstones of Latvian “historical memory”. One of the most ideologically problematic issues is the question of the relationship between invaders and local Orthodox rulers. This topic is closely related to the extent of the Christian faith among the local population before the German mission. Currently, most Latvian researchers literally take over the chronicle that the first missionaries to the Livs were Germans, but in Latgale lands Orthodoxy had spread only into the ruling circles. Archaeologists, on the other hand, lack a clear answer to the question: Why up to the 16th century cult items of the Byzantine rite survived to the inhabitants of today’s Eastern part of Latvia? Furthermore – Why was the creation of Latin dioceses and the dissemination of the Latin burial ritual in the area delayed? These phenomena are related to the continuity of the burial ritual from the 12th to the 14th century, which is usually associated with the supposedly formal Christianity of the natives in the 13th century and their subsequent double faith. As medieval chronicle research has reached a new level of understanding of the source in recent decades, it would also be time to look at the highlighted issues differently. The article addresses the local political events of interest to us in Livonia, based both on medieval theological postulates and in the context of global political developments of the time, which were of particular concern to the spiritual authorities. It is important to note that the establishment of Livonia took place at a time when the Roman Church was beginning active efforts to join the Byzantine rite Church. The Conquest of Constantinople in 1204 opened up unprecedented political opportunities that were realised in church unions in several countries (Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, Galicia). In both the conquered Greece and the lands of the union, the Latin did not require a change in the language or ritual of the liturgy. Subordination to Rome and administrative unity with the West were immediately demanded, but the changes were postponed. Thus, the lack of information on church construction, congregation formation, and tithe enforcement in both the Jersik Principality and eastern Tolova is logical: Latin practice in the newly joined Byzantine rite lands shows that in Livonia, in the Slavic language.
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The problem of death in one of the largest reformation centres in Grand Duchy of Lithuania – Kėdainiai Evangelical Reformed church, focusing on Jonušava (“New Kėdainiai”) church and cemetery, from the 3rd decade of the 17th century to the mid-19th century, is analysed in this article. The elite of this denomination has mainly been studied in historiography, and it has made various controversial statements, the validity of which is also worth verifying. The aim of this article is to discuss the burial sites of Kėdainiai Evangelical Reformed – the cemetery and the cemetery church in Jonušava, the construction of burial sites, changes in infrastructure, and the dynamics of burials. The study uses several methodological approaches, narrative and statistical, palaeographic, historical cartography and epigraphic methods. It is emphasised that the results of the Kėdainiai study conflict with the statement expressed in historiography that “evangelicals did not value the place of the funeral, and their cemeteries were usually moved outside the city”. The study has shown that, at least in Kėdainiai, the emergence of the Jonušava cemetery was a forced act after the loss of St. George’s Church. Later, another cemetery was established in the very centre of the city. In conclusion, the burial sites were, however, immortalised with various burial monuments, albeit more modest compared with Catholics or Lutherans. In addition, much was determined by the social status of individuals and the economic opportunities of relatives. It is necessary to perform an analysis of the burial sites of other evangelical Reformed GDLs in order of more extensive generalisations.
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