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The ease with which Russia managed to surprise the political elites of the West with the events of early 2014 is dumbfounding. On the eve of the annexation of the Crimea, no one in the public space in Poland warned against the upcoming turn in the policies of Moscow. Representatives of the highest Polish authorities responsible for the security and foreign policy were clearly surprised with the developments. Undoubtedly, the “Crimean error” indicates that information that had been flowing from Russia for a long time was ignored as it did not fit into the policy adopted by the Polish authorities. From today's perspective, multiple signals can be indicated about the upcoming profound changes in the immediate environment of Polish security.When examining why the Polish authorities did not notice the upcoming shift in the politics of Russia, we should take into account the group thinking syndrome, described by Irving Janis. In this approach, group members try to minimize conflict and reach a consensus decision without critical evaluation of alternative viewpoints. This term has gained popularity in social psychology, but has also provided important research tools for the analysis of foreign policy, treated as a separate area in the context of international relations.
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As a result of the archaeological research developed at the Roman settlement of Romula a fragment of a Roman pottery was discovered, which is nowadays preserved in the Museum of Caracal. Here the word ΓΑΔΑΤΗС was incised. D. Tudor considered it a Syrian anthroponym derived from the name of the god Gad, which lead to the formation of numerous Syro-Palmyrean anthroponyms. This opinion was shared by all those who, up to the time being, inserted this graffito in various epigraphic corpora of Dacia, considering it as further evidence of the Syrian presence in Roman Dacia. Yet, the supporters of such a viewpoint did not take into account all the available data which allows us to assert that Gadates is definitely an Iranian anthroponym attested on other sources as following: Xenophon’s Cyropaedia, The Letter of Darius to Gadatas, the Elamite Ka-da-da inscription discovered in the Persepolis fortifications, a Greek inscription from Delos and another Greek inscription from Antiphellos in Lycia pertaining to the Roman period. Xenophon’s Gadatas and the one mentioned in the Letter provide the Iranian character of the anthroponym. Within the Letter, Darius specifically name Gadatas ‘(his) slave’. We encounter this term in the Old Persian variant of the Behistun inscription as comprised in the collocation mana bandaka, meaning ‘my subject’ or ‘my servant’. It exclusively refers to the highest ranked Iranian individuals in the proximity of the Great King. Gadatas anthroponym is probably ahypochoristic derived from Bagadata, a very widespread name in the pre-Islamic Iranian world, having the same meaning with the Greek Theodotos and the Slavic Bogdan, i.e. ‘the Gift of God’. We do not know precisely where Gatates of Romula came from. He could belong to Syria as well, where the Iranian anthroponyms were natural, as the land had been subjected to the Iranian rule for more than two centuries.
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Author, drawing on scientific researches of domestic and oversea historians, materials of press, exposes essence problems of "norths territories", process of its origin and position of the USA in its decision.
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In 1914, the world community had the first opportunity to get acquainted with the magnificent work of leading scientists and public figures, the famous „Report of the International Commission for investigation the causes and conducting of the Balkan wars", known as the Carnegie poll.
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After the fail of the Safevid state, some local khanates appeared in north Azerbaijan, and the region was never united from then on. The Ottoman and Rus Empires, as well as Iran, first with the Avşar, and then Kajar dynasties, quarreled for dominance over this region. The eventual winner in this game was the Tsardom, which succeeded in invading all of the khanates. Ottoman imperial strategy was to save those princelings.
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During the Ottoman-Russian War in 1877-78 so called as 93 War because of occuring in 1293 according to the Hijri Calendar, the Ottoman Empire armies were unable to succed in the face of Russian and Romanian forces except for some of the achievements in the Caucasian front and the defense of Plevn and the war resulted in the defeat of the Ottoman Empire. At the end of the war, the Ottoman Empire signed the Treaties of San Stefano and Berlin, leading to the loss of land and prestige. To resolve the failure and shortcomings of the army in battle, training of the Ottoman Army like the European model was decided. While getting help from France on the military reforms until the War 93, henceforth Abdulhamid administration turned to Germany in this regard. The military officers were brought from Germany for the proposed reforms and the Ottoman officers was sent for training to European countries, especially to Germany, being advanced in the military context. In this regard, from the year 1880 for rehabilitation of the army, a lot of officers and technical specialists came from Germany. These are the examples: Colonel Koehler, Lieutenant-Colonel Von der Goltz. Starting from this date, the Ottoman Empire followed a close policy to Germany in terms of the foreign policy until the end of World War I. One of the most important reasons behind this was, Germany had a different policy than the other European Powers regarding the sharing policies. Undertakings required to be done to reform the Ottoman Military order also affected the foreign policy of Germany and the European Great Powers, then reforms were brought to the instrument of this policy. This study will analyze why the Ottoman Empire was close to Germany on military reforms after the war and how this situation affects the Empire’s relations with Duvel-i Muazzama.
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International expositions having been started in Europe in the middle of the nineteenth century have shifted to the continent of America from the end of this century. All countries, including Ottoman Empire, have been invited to the expositions held in Chicago for the 400th anniversary of discovery of America by Christopher Columbus. Ottoman Empire defined as the sick man of the Europe has spread on effort to be able to be a member of the developing world by presenting a modern Ottoman look in Chicago Exposition. Turkish participators having shown the Ottoman culture and products in Chicago with their mosque, fountain, and hippodrome have been rewarded with forty five medals by Chicago Exposition Commission. Ottoman administrators have exhibited the technological development of the country with the products manufactured in Tersane-i Amire and Telegraph Surveillance Factory in the Chicago Exposition. The fleet which have been locked in the Golden Horn after ascending of Sultan Abdülhamid have been awarded with five medals. These rewards having contrasted with the existing condition of the navy are the result of the success of Tersane-i Amire in fine processing. Despite its success in the fair, the navy having left to corrode and of which culture have been destroyed was not to be able to fulfil the duties given for defending the homeland in the following period and Ottoman Empire was to pay a heavy price for the negligence. In preparation of the subject, Ottoman Archive documents of the Prime Ministry are benefited from as well as Naval Museum Archive documents.
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120 years ago, from 19 to 28 March 1895, a unifying Congress was held in Sofia, which established the Macedonian Committee (MC) as the governing body of a general organization which was joined by the Macedonian societies in Bulgaria and Romania and student societies in Western Europe and Russia.
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Basra territory is under the rule of the Ottoman Empire for a long time. Because of geo-strategic value of Basra territory, each period it witnesses important events. In the 19th century, Ottoman military and political powers start to decline, developments in the Ottoman Middle East concern to especially Britain, Russia, Germany and Persia. Due to British colonies in India, Basra territory is crucial for British Empire. In the first three quarter of 19th century, Britain protects Ottoman territorial integrity against Russia and Germany for own economic benefit and strategies about India colonies. However, after the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, Britain gives up this policy due to changed situations and balanced elements. Anglo-Ottoman relations are subject to many researches and works. In this study, Anglo-Ottoman relations specific to Basra territory and subject briefly evaluated with different perspective. In the light of the Ottoman archival documents, British activities of two periods, British protective policy period and give up this policy period, will be described. In the 19th century Anglo-Ottoman relations are increased. These relations include economic, commercial, political and diplomatic dimensions. In this study, firstly, Basra territory’s situation in the pre-19th century briefly overviewed then British activities for penetration in Basra territory in the 19th century examined in detail.
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The content of the article is the effort of Armenians to use some of the theatres/movies produced by them against Turks as a tool of propaganda in 1920’s in various cities of Europe (Stockholm, Hague, Geneva, Bern etc.) and the effort of Turkish embassy officers to prevent this. The study was prepared by using the Prime Ministry Ottoman Archives. The role of this propaganda will be better understood in the context of the Armenian issue reached today.
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The author presents the basic contours of 1945, which was marked by the end of the war, the collapse of the Independent State of Croatia, the establishment of Federal State of Croatia as a component of Democratic Federal Yugoslavia and the seizure of authority by the Communist Party of Yugoslav (KPJ). After the end of a liberation and civil war, the KPJ took power into its hands and created the essential prerequisites for the federal reorganization of the Yugoslav state and the revolutionary change of society in compliance with its revolutionary and federalist ideas and through the application of experiences from the USSR. The emphasis is on the most important moves by the KPJ in the first year of its rule and the fate of the main anti-communist forces in Croatia.
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Autorzy prezentowanego tu memorandum przekonywali, że celem komunistycznej propagandy jest wychowanie nowego pokolenia ludzi, zdecydowanie wrogiego wobec państw zachodnich. I pytali: jak przeciwdziałać takiej propagandzie?
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The anti-Semitism of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin became, at the beginning of the Cold War, an anti-Semitic paranoia and took on the most radical form during the campaign against Western influence on Soviet society. Soon after the destruction of the Jewish Antifascist Committee, the Doctors’ Plot campaign was launched at the end of 1952; it soon became a perfect basis for blaming all Jews as disloyal to the Soviet regime. In the republics of the USSR the local Communist leaders supported the anti-Semitic campaign in Moscow with allegations about Jewish medical crimes at the local level.Despite much circumstantial evidence and many testimonies there still is no strong basis for the conclusion that the anti-Semitic campaign of 1952-1953 would soon turn into a large-scale repression campaign or wholesale genocide of the Jewish population in the USSR, but the clear anti-Jewish policy and the Soviet practice of the mass repression of nations leaves little doubt that the Soviet society was mentally prepared for the deportation of Jews to Siberia. The Soviet regime practiced constant archive purge campaigns, and documents about politically sensitive issues or regime crime were destroyed on a regular basis. Despite all regime efforts, some traces of anti-Semitic campaign preparation, control, and coordination may be found not in the central state institutions of the USSR but in the Communist Party archives of the republics. At the republican level Communist party Central Committees some top secret documents of the anti-Semitic campaign of 1953 were preserved in specific archive units, the so-called Osobaja Papka.In the USSR the reports of local party leaders to Moscow always described never-existing enthusiastic popular support for Soviet policies; thus the true scale of anti-Semitism in society can’t be determined on the basis of such sources. But they demonstrate that local Soviet institutions supported the spread of anti-Semitism during the infamous Doctors’ Plot campaign of 1953. They also permit the conclusion that any anti-Semitic campaign would not be limited to negative propaganda and at least part of Soviet society was ready to accept some repression of Jews.Joseph Stalin’s death in 1953 put an early end to the anti-Semitic campaign. Soon Stalin’s political heirs quashed charges against the doctors and even punished a few distinguished instigators of the campaign, but there was no official and public condemnation of that anti-Semitic campaign. Thereupon anti-Semitism became less aggressive but still remained very strong in the USSR.
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1968 – Forty Years Later represents a collection of historiographical works of 26 authors from different countries (Serbia, Russia, Czech, Croatia, Bulgaria, and Germany) about the international relations and the foreign-relation temptations of Yugoslavia and also about the domestic circumstances in Yugoslavia during the years 1967-1969. The first part of the book is dealing with topics like: 1968 as the turning-point for Eastern Europe, „Prague Spring“ after the increase of Soviet pressure on Czechoslovakia (July 1968), „Prague Spring“ and the attitudes of the Hungarian leadership, its influence in Bulgaria, the phenomenon of the Czechoslovak opposition after the defeat of the „Prague Spring“ in 1969-1972, the year 1968 as a point of departure of the new Yugoslav foreign policy orientation, Yugoslav reactions to the crisis in the Middle East and dictatorship in Greece, Yugoslav-Soviet, Yugoslav-Romanian and Yugoslav-Italian relations in the days of the Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia relations with the Federal Republic of Germany in 1960s, Yugoslav economic emigration in West Germany and the visit of the crew of Apollo 11 to Yugoslavia in 1969. The second part of the book is consisted from the works about Yugoslavia's activities in domestic and foreign policy after the intervention of the Warsaw Pact in Czecholsovakia in 1968, Yugoslav People’s Army’s ordeals in 1960s, the echo of the global student revolt of 1968 in Yugoslav youth and student press, student demonstrations in Belgrade and Yugoslavia in 1968, the case of Krunoslav Draganovic as one aspect of Yugoslav − Vatican relations, liberalization of Yugoslav theatre, and „rebellious“1968 in Istria. Most works are based on the new historical researches and they, after forty years, try to give a new answer and point of view on the issues connected with the happenings in 1968. The book contains also Chronology of the important events in 1968 and Bibliography of the selected Works on 1968.
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