EPISTOLARNO SVJEDOČANSTVO GARIBALDINCA ĐAKOMA VIVALDI PASKVE O CRNOJ GORI
THE EPISTOLARY TESTIMONY OF GARIBALDIAN GIACOMO VIVALDI PASQUA ABOUT MONTENEGRO

Summary/Abstract: The uprising of the Ottoman subjects in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the summer of 1875 and the resulting complications in the Balkans from 1876 to 1878, involving Montenegro, Serbia, Bulgaria, and later Russia and other major powers, were closely followed by the Italian public. In the Balkan peoples’ uprising, Italy recognized its own experience of the Risorgimento, or national unification. A part of the Italian public, imbued with liberal ideas derived from figures like Mazzini and Garibaldi, supported the involvement of Italian volunteers in the insurgent ranks. On the other hand, Italian governments not only refrained from supporting the departure of their citizens to foreign battlefields but also endeavoured to prevent this through various administrative measures, given Italy's sound political and economic relations with the Ottoman Empire. The Austrian authorities also intervened by arresting and extraditing Italian citizens who attempted to cross from Dalmatia and the Bay of Kotor to Herzegovina and Montenegro, that is, to the arena of battle. The precise number of Italian volunteers, Garibaldians, in the insurgent ranks is not accurately determined. Estimates suggest there were between several dozen and four hundred of them. According to the assertions of the Montenegrin Prince Nikola, there were fewer than 40 Italian volunteers in Herzegovina. He particularly valued the moral contribution of the Italians to the uprising. According to the testimonies of Garibaldians, their strong motivation to come to Herzegovina was fueled by the affirmative news about the uprising spread by the Italian press. Upon arriving on the battlefield, their enthusiasm diminished, although the insurgents provided them with better living conditions than they themselves had. The Italians distinguished themselves in battles at Zupa, Duga, and Presjeka, and particularly in the Battle of Muratovica, during which, according to some sources, the insurgents, Montenegrins, and Italians charged shouting Garibaldi’s name. The Italian volunteers displayed ideological diversity, with a notable presence of supporters aligned with the Democratic International current. This group distanced itself from Montenegro, viewing the state as autocratic and accusing it of exploiting the uprising for personal gain. Rather than directly participating in Montenegrin units, these volunteers preferred to associate themselves with Mićo Ljubibratić, the insurgent leader in Herzegovina, around whom other foreign volunteers also congregated. Another liberal faction advocated for their volunteer group, referred to as their legion, to align with Montenegro. Some Garibaldians signaled their preferences by unfurling a red flag and declaring a republic in Sutorina. Garibaldi opposed these exaggerations, considering them detrimental. He closely monitored the uprising's progress, maintained communication with its leaders, and offered encouragement. Initially, he believed that support should funnel through the insurgent leader Mićo Ljubibratić. However, subsequent reports from trusted individuals, particularly Giacomo Vivaldi Paskva and Evgenije Popović, led him to the conclusion that it should be directed through Prince Nikola. The Prince had been aiding and overseeing the insurgent movement even before Montenegro officially entered the war. Garibaldi’s emissary, Marquis Giacomo Vivaldi Pasqua (1844– 1893), joined Garibaldi at the age of twenty. This Genoese nobleman participated in military campaigns in Poland, France, and Italy. His house was a meeting place for Italian patriots and revolutionaries, including Giuseppe Mazzini. Giacomo Vivaldi Pasqua is mentioned in the diaries and memoirs of several contemporaries, including Arso Pejović, Gavro Vuković, Martin Đurđević, and Evgenije Popović. These references highlight his close relationship with Prince Nikola and his almost idealized bravery. Described as a highly educated man with exceptional intellectual abilities and manners, Vivaldi Pasqua received particular praise from the Spanish writer and politician Emilio Castelar. Castelar, who served as the head of the First Spanish Republic from September 1873 to January 1874, penned a sort of ode to this Garibaldian and his libertarian aspirations: The soul of a hero, the imagination of fire, the character of iron, he devoted himself to liberty like a knight of the Middle Ages to his lady. While still a child, he followed Garibaldi in his expedition to Sicily, fighting at his side with a heroism that revived the ancient legends of Greece. Since then, wherever there has been a people oppressed in pain and anguish, wherever the sign of liberty has been raised, wherever the right has been fought for, whether in the prosperous days of Naples or in the adverse days of Mentana, both in the plains of Dijon and in the gorges of the Dougas, this son of his century, without counting the number of his enemies, has endured the fatigues of battle and the perils of death, to break the link in the chain of a slave and advance one minute the work of man in the pursuit of progress and realization of justice. Before arriving in Montenegro, the activities of Vivaldi Pasqua had been closely monitored by the Italian authorities. The General Secretary of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, Codronchi, in a letter to the Prefect of Venice, expressed a certain interest in him. The letter states that Vivaldi Pasqua met Garibaldi in Rome on November 14 and then travelled on to Venice and Trieste. On February 8, 1876, Italian diplomat Cesare Durando reported to Visconti Venosta, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Italy, about Vivaldi Pasqua. Highlighting the ideological differences among the Italian volunteers heading to the Herzegovina battlefields, Durando classified Vivaldi Pasqua as a representative of the Italian aristocratic faction. The leader of one of the last groups to arrive on the Herzegovina battlefield, Iacopo Sgarallino from Livorno, who carried Garibaldi’s message to Prince Nikola, received instructions from Garibaldi on February 16 to coordinate his actions with Giacomo Vivaldi Pasqua. Although the marquis from Genoa is mentioned as leading the Italian unit in Garibaldi’s dispatch, and despite being mentioned in that context by news sources, it might be inferred that it was planned that Vivaldi Pasqua lead a unit in formation, expected to consist of around four hundred volunteers. However, this unit was not formed due to discord among the Garibaldians. While Montenegro was still officially neutral in the war, despite providing material and military assistance to the insurgents, Vivaldi Pasqua unwaveringly supported Prince Nikola in the disagreements between certain leaders of the Herzegovinian insurgents and the Montenegrin ruler and his dukes. He was convinced that Prince Nikola represented a realistic force capable of unifying the combat efforts of the Montenegrin army and the insurgents. Advocating these views and the belief that Herzegovina could not survive as a republic, which was a too enthusiastic goal of some Italian volunteers, brought him into conflict with fellow countrymen who supported the insurgent leader Ljubibratić. The conflict was of such a magnitude that Vivaldi Pasqua was sentenced to the harshest punishment by his fellow Italians at the selfproclaimed War Court, which was later commuted to expulsion from the volunteer ranks. The verdict was issued in the name of the nonexistent Republic of Sutorina. Due to the dwindling numbers of Garibaldians and the fact that Garibaldi’s emissary was in the ranks of the Montenegrin army, accompanying Prince Nikola, the idea of his expulsion was also impossible to realize in practical terms. Vivaldi Pasqua advocated for the proclamation of Prince Nikola as the ruler of Herzegovina, primarily out of fear that Austria-Hungary might occupy the territoriy. At that moment, the Prince’s acceptance would have meant an open and formal confrontation between Montenegro and the Ottoman Empire, for which Montenegro was not yet ready. It can be assumed that such an act would also have caused dissatisfaction among the European powers, a concern Prince Nikola also had to take into account. With the direct confrontation between Montenegro and the Ottoman Empire in July 1876, Vivaldi Pasqua found himself once again in the ranks of the Montenegrin army. Alfredo Serristori, a member of the Italian parliament, who visited Montenegro in August 1877 and published his impressions in the book Le rive della Dalmazia e il Montenegro the same year, was often in his company. Garibaldi's emissary served as his informant and guide in the field. Vivaldi Pasqua was the last Garibaldian to leave Montenegro. Recognizing the contribution of this Italian, the Montenegrin ruler honored him in 1876 for his courage and merits. Vivaldi Pasqua also left testimony about his experience on the Herzegovinian battlefield and in Montenegro. Many of his letters were intercepted and never reached their intended destination. Of those that are preserved, three selected ones were published in a special edition on the occasion of the wedding of Crown Prince Victor Emmanuel of Savoy and the Montenegrin Princess Jelena Petrović Njegoš in 1896. Italian readers were drawn to this publication by the Giornale Ligustico di Archeologia, Storia e Letteratura, with an introductory note that revealed the name of the letter’s recipient – Ferdinando Rezzasco. The Italian journal's interest in this two decades old correspondence can be explained by the need to provide readers with more information about the country of their queen-to-be, which was almost unknown to them prior to the wedding. Vivaldi Pasqua’s correspondence was chosen as evidence of the ties and the solidarity between Montenegrins and Italians in the past. In these letters, Garibaldi's emissary brings details of his journey to Montenegro and shares his impressions of the country and its people during a crucial historical moment. The first letter introduces Montenegro and the Montenegrins; the second provides more information about his journey and meeting Mićo Ljubibratić, while the third describes the Montenegrins' fighting style and provides considerations on the possible direction of the Eastern Question. Vivaldi Pasqua's depiction of Montenegro in the letters is marked by a glorifying tone, emphasizing characteristics that make this Balkan country and its people an example to be admired. The Montenegrins are portrayed as exceptionally honest, brave, and devoted patriots. This Garibaldian also presents Montenegro as an egalitarian society without economic or class stratification, a land where everyone has sufficient means to live, and extreme wealth and poverty are almost nonexistent. The author attributes much of this state of affairs to Montenegro's ruler, Nikola I Petrović Njegoš. In his letters, the Montenegrin sovereign is portrayed as an educated man and a democratically inclined reformer who significantly advanced Montenegro's educational, legislative, and economic position. In the letter to Garibaldi dated December 30, 1875, Vivaldi Pasqua strongly advocates the stance that aid should be directed towards Montenegro, both due to the better military organization and capabilities of the Montenegrin Prince and for social, economic, and political reasons. While Herzegovina languished under Turkish rule, Montenegro, according to Vivaldi Pasqua, had made visible progress in recent decades, evident in the construction of roads, the establishment of telegraph communication, the founding of a printing press, and the "mandatory, secular, and free" education provided in Montenegrin schools. Vivaldi Pasqua was keen on Italians firing the first insurgent cannon shot in this war. In case there was not enough money for it, he was prepared to purchase a cannon using his own personal funds. This nobleman was particularly inspired by the patriotism of the Montenegrins. In the third published letter addressed to Rezzasco, he describes the enthusiasm with which Montenegrins engaged in warfare, vigorously attacking fortified Turkish positions. Like other authors reporting on this war, he underscores the involvement of women in combat operations, mentioning that they are responsible for transporting food and ammunition. The enthusiasm for the Montenegrin struggle and the support that Vivaldi Pasqua aimed to provide, both through his actions and his writing, led him to identify with his trans-Adriatic neighbours, experiencing their aspirations as his own: "The goals of the Herzegovinian insurgents must be our goals as well: I say 'our' because from this moment, and until events dictate a different relationship, I consider myself a Montenegrin." This approach sets Vivaldi Pasqua apart form the array of Italian visitors who stayed in Montenegro during the 19th century and left written testimonies about their experiences. In terms of informational value, Vivaldi Pasqua's correspondence is significant as a testimony from a participant in the military operations who shares his own firsthand observations. It also influenced Garibaldi's decision to support one of the factions vying to lead the Herzegovinian uprising. Apart from its factual value, Vivaldi Pasqua's correspondence is also noteworthy for its travelogue-style portrayal of his experiences in Montenegro. While in his initial letters, he exhibits characteristics of an exote, focusing on the peculiarities that deviate from his own cultural conventions, he soon transforms into an assimilated traveler, ready to fully adopt the values of the social community he describes and to become a part of it. His depiction of Montenegro is built on elements that will become dominant in presenting this country to the Italian public just before and in the years following the Savoy-Petrović wedding.

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