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Faces of War, vol. 9, Tools of War Cover Image

Oblicza Wojny, t. 9, Narzędzia wojny
Faces of War, vol. 9, Tools of War

Contributor(s): Tadeusz Grabarczyk (Editor)
Subject(s): History, Military history, Political history, Ancient World, Middle Ages, Modern Age
Published by: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Keywords: tools of war; Blue Army; Roman military; ancient siege art; Polish medieval cavalry; urban arsenals; guerrilla warfare; military industry; General Aleksander Litwinowicz; imagology; engineering troops; war propaganda; Middle East; World War II
Summary/Abstract: Oblicza Wojny is a series published by the Lodz University Press since 2020, dedicated to military conflicts throughout the centuries. The ninth volume of this series is titled Tools of War. When thinking about tools used during wars, various types of weaponry and armament come to mind, and this is precisely the subject matter of the texts published in this volume. The discussions include fortifications in the Battle of Dyrrachium in 48 BCE, the armament of knights from the royal retinues of Polish kings in the second half of the 15th century, and the weaponry amassed in the arsenals of Krakow in the 17th century. Subsequent articles concern the 20th century, highlighting the use of armored trains in the Polish-Bolshevik War of 1919-1921, the fate of the Polish 1st Tank Regiment at the end of World War I, Irish guerrilla warfare in the years 1919-1921, armament production in Poland before 1939, and aircraft used during World War II. The volume also includes an article on a rarely discussed topic by historians, which is the equipment of the Polish military from 1945 to 1989. The volume concludes with an article dedicated to attempts to create an army of the League of Arab States in 21st century. The authors are professional historians, and their texts are based on thorough analysis of sources.

Series: Uniwersytet Łódzki

  • E-ISBN-13: 978-83-8331-373-3
  • Print-ISBN-13: 978-83-8331-372-6
  • Page Count: 354
  • Publication Year: 2023
  • Language: Polish
Słowo wstępne

Słowo wstępne
(Introduction)

  • Author(s):Tadeusz Grabarczyk
  • Language:Polish
  • Subject(s):History, Editorial
  • Page Range:7-9
  • No. of Pages:3
Prace fortyfikacyjne cezarian i pompejańczyków pod Dyrrachium (48 r. p.n.e.)

Prace fortyfikacyjne cezarian i pompejańczyków pod Dyrrachium (48 r. p.n.e.)
(Field Works of Caesarians and Pompeians at Dyrrachium (48 BCE))

  • Author(s):Michał Wilczyński
  • Language:Polish
  • Subject(s):History, Military history, Ancient World
  • Page Range:11-24
  • No. of Pages:14
  • Keywords:Gaius Julius Caesar; Roman military; Caesar's civil war; ancient siege warfare; Caesar’s Balkan campaign
  • Summary/Abstract:During the campaigns of the Gallic War and the Civil War, Gaius Julius Caesar repeatedly led siege operations, personally commanding at least 17 sieges. Caesar repeatedly demonstrated innovation during them, the most famous example of which is the construction of a double line of fortifications around Alesia in 52 BCE, which allowed the Romans to repel the attacks of both the Gallic relief and the besieged. Siege operations undertaken by Caesar at Dyrrachium in 48 BC, to which this article is devoted, seems no less interesting. At that time, he showed particular creativity and boldness by surrounding the more numerous army of Gnaeus Pompey the Great with a belt of fortifications some 25 km long. The article analyses the following issues: the topography of the battle site; reasons for initiating the fortification effort by Caesar; types of fortifications erected by his soldiers; the fortification works carried out by the Pompeians and their actions to slow down the enemy's work; the factors enabling Pompey's army to break the blockade. In the conclusion, assessments of Caesar's undertaking were presented, and an attempt to answer the question about the uniqueness of the activities carried out under Dyrrachium from the point of view of the ancient art of war was made. The source basis for the analysis is the account of Book III of Caesar's Commentarii de bello civili (BC III, 41–54; 58–72), supplemented by the accounts of other ancient authors.
Uzbrojenie i wyposażenie członków chorągwi nadwornej królów Polski w drugiej połowie XV w.

Uzbrojenie i wyposażenie członków chorągwi nadwornej królów Polski w drugiej połowie XV w.
(The Armament and Equipment of the Members of the Court Banner of the Kings of Poland in the second half of the 15th century)

  • Author(s):Jędrzej Tomasz Kałużny
  • Language:Polish
  • Subject(s):History, Military history, Political history, Middle Ages
  • Page Range:25-45
  • No. of Pages:21
  • Keywords:court banner; mounted courtiers; cavalry; 15th century; royal court; Casimir IV Jagiellon; John I Albert
  • Summary/Abstract:The court banner of the Polish kings was composed of mounted knights (curieses) and maids (cubicularii), at the head of mounted troops of various sizes. Archival materials from the Central Archives of Historical Records in Warsaw contain information from the second half of the 15th century about 11 500 cavalrymen serving in the court unit. The author characterized various types of sources informing about the court banner – riders, equipment and horses. Due to the armament, the riders can be divided into heavily armed – in lance armor (zbroja kopijnicza), medium-armed - in shooter’s armor (zbroja strzelcza), and lightly armed - armed in the Rascian (in Old Polish equivalent Serb) or Tatar style. The author also discusses individual types of offensive and protective weapons used by horsemen from the court unit. The article also analyzed information about horses, their breeds, varieties, wages and health. As the author notes, in terms of weapons, the equipment of courtiers did not differ from that used by mercenaries or common knights. It is worth noting that the oldest mentions of firearms used by horse riders in Poland concern courtiers who were carrying rifles as early as 1497.
Uzbrojenie Krakowa w pierwszej połowie XVII wieku

Uzbrojenie Krakowa w pierwszej połowie XVII wieku
(Arms and Armour of Krakow in the First Half of the 17th century)

  • Author(s):Jacek Zinkiewicz
  • Language:Polish
  • Subject(s):History, Military history, Modern Age
  • Page Range:47-65
  • No. of Pages:19
  • Keywords:Cracow; bourgeois weapons; city arsenals; modern history
  • Summary/Abstract:It seems that the first half of the 17th century was a period of relative peace in the history of Krakow. From the siege of the city by Habsburg troops in 1587 until the tragic events of 1655, Krakow was not besieged by enemy troops. It was also a time when the threat was not forgotten and efforts were made to counteract it in advance. The preserved sources allow for the presentation of many aspects of urban defense in the discussed period. The example of the former capital of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth shows the urban defense of that time in quite a wide range. Thanks to the preserved registers, but also other written sources, especially normative ones, we can attempt to characterize the city's armament in the time preceding the series of tragic events that began in the mid-17th century. The characteristics of urban weapons in modern times is a very poorly explored issue. This also contrasts with the abundance of historical studies on modern military affairs. This article is an attempt to partially fill this research gap.
Nienawiść bez granic. Antyniemieckie nastroje w Królestwie Polskim przed 1914 r. a rosyjska propaganda wojenna w dobie Wielkiej Wojny w świetle raportów dyplomatycznych

Nienawiść bez granic. Antyniemieckie nastroje w Królestwie Polskim przed 1914 r. a rosyjska propaganda wojenna w dobie Wielkiej Wojny w świetle raportów dyplomatycznych
(Hatred Without Borders. Anti-German Sentiments in the Kingdom of Poland before 1914 and Russian War Propaganda during the Great War in Light of Diplomatic Reports)

  • Author(s):Piotr Szlanta
  • Language:Polish
  • Subject(s):History, Military history, Political history, Pre-WW I & WW I (1900 -1919)
  • Page Range:67-85
  • No. of Pages:19
  • Keywords:First World War; war propaganda; national stereotypes; iconography; Russian-Poland; Germanisation
  • Summary/Abstract:Anti-German war propaganda in the Russian part of partitioned Poland was based on the very strong anti-German resentments prevailing among the Polish subjects of the Tsar Nicolai II long before 1914. Among other things, man accused the Germans of being responsible for the outbreak of war and committing war crimes against civilians for example in Kalisz. Such social attitudes were mostly a reaction to the Germanization policy consistently practiced in the Prussian part of partition Poland in the decades preceding the outbreak of the Great War. Resentment or even hostility toward Germany intensified during the revolutions of 1905–907, when Polish public opinion accused the Germans of blocking the Tsar's restoration of the autonomy of the Kingdom of Poland and readiness to intervene militarily to obstruct that. Resentment against the Germans was cumulative in the person of Kaiser Wilhelm II, who bore personal responsibility for the policy of denationalization of his Polish subjects. This made itself known, among other things, during the jubilee of the 25th anniversary of the reign of the German monarch in June 1913. Anti-German sentiment in Polish society was also fueled by the strongest Polish political grouping, namely National Democracy. The Russian authorities often tolerated anti-German sentiment among Poles, which was intended to divert attention of Poles from the policy of Russification practiced in the Russian part of partitioned Poland and allowed the channeling of Polish discontent in a relatively safe way for the authorities.
„Żelazne potwory” na Piotrkowskiej. Przyczynek do łódzkich dziejów 1 Pułku Czołgów na podstawie lokalnej prasy i wybranych archiwaliów

„Żelazne potwory” na Piotrkowskiej. Przyczynek do łódzkich dziejów 1 Pułku Czołgów na podstawie lokalnej prasy i wybranych archiwaliów
(„Iron Monsters” at Piotrkowska Street. Introduction to the History of Łódź the 1st Tank Regiment on the Basis of Local Press and Selected Archives)

  • Author(s):Tomasz Walkiewicz
  • Language:Polish
  • Subject(s):History, Military history, Recent History (1900 till today), Pre-WW I & WW I (1900 -1919)
  • Page Range:87-128
  • No. of Pages:42
  • Keywords:The 1st Tank Regiment; Renault FT tank; Hallerʼs Army; World War I; Polish­Bolshe­vik War; Łódź; press; The State Archive in Łódź
  • Summary/Abstract:The 1st Tank Regiment was the very first military unit in the whole history of the Polish army, which was full fitted out with tanks. Created on March 15, 1919 by order of the Command of the Polish Army in France, it went to the independent Poland in June of the same year. Equipped with 120 modern tanks, the Renault FT took an active part in the war with Bolshevik Russia. A little-known card in his history are relations with Łódź, where he was stationed for the first two years. Łódź was the place from the fighting vehicles went to the fronts of the war, here they also went from the battlefields for renovation. In Łódź, armoured soldiers quartered, continued their military training and participated in language courses. Some aspects of the regiment’s relationship with the city were reflected in the local press of the time: „Straż Polska”, „Kurier Łódzki”, „Głos Polski”, „Rozwój”, „Praca”. News, some small ads and press announcements supplemented with individual archives from the resources of the State Archive in Łódź such as iconography, files and ephemeral prints allowed to broaden knowledge about some important aspects connected with: the reviews of tanks organized for the local population, among whom they aroused great interest; participation of the regiment in parades accompanying state and military ceremonies or church devotions; minor incidents and accidents in the city involving soldiers and drivers; a volunteer enlistment to the unit conducted among the inhabitants of Łódź in the summer of 1920 and the ceremony of decoration of officers and privates from the 1st Tank Regiment Kris Virtuti Militari in June 1921.
Polskie pociągi pancerne w wojnie polsko-bolszewickiej 1919–1921

Polskie pociągi pancerne w wojnie polsko-bolszewickiej 1919–1921
(Polish Armor Trains in the Polish-Soviet War 1919–1921)

  • Author(s):Adam Lajdenfrost
  • Language:Polish
  • Subject(s):History, Military history, Political history, Interwar Period (1920 - 1939)
  • Page Range:129-181
  • No. of Pages:53
  • Keywords:armored train; Polish-Soviet war; weapon; tactics; history of Poland; military conflict
  • Summary/Abstract:An armored train is an armored steam locomotive with several wagons, armed with cannons and machine guns. This weapon has evolved since the invention of the train in 1825. Poland did not have a tradition of using armored trains. The development of this weapon, after Poland regained independence in 1918, followed the patterns taken from the partitioning powers. During the Polish-Soviet war, their use was favored by the vast terrain on which the hostilities took place. For their course, it was important to have control over railway lines and junctions, which was achieved thanks to the use of armored trains. The intensity of the fighting and the military's need for this type of weapon, with the simultaneous lack of appropriate plants and specialists, meant that a large part of these machines did not come from factories but was temporarily improvised with the use of materials at hand. The effectiveness of armored trains in battle during the war with the Bolsheviks meant that in the interwar period this type of weapon was still being developed. It was successfully used during World War II, which was followed by the decline of armored trains.
Miejska partyzantka w wojnie o niepodległość Irlandii 1919–1921

Miejska partyzantka w wojnie o niepodległość Irlandii 1919–1921
(Urban Guerrillas in the Irish War of Independence, 1919–1921)

  • Author(s):Michał Maciejewski
  • Language:Polish
  • Subject(s):History, Military history, Political history, Social history, Interwar Period (1920 - 1939)
  • Page Range:183-201
  • No. of Pages:19
  • Keywords:IRA; guerrilla warfare; Black and Tans; urban guerrillas; Irish War of Independence
  • Summary/Abstract:The purpose of the following article is to present and analyse the tactical solutions employed by the Irish Republican Army and British forces in the Irish War of Independence in 1919–1921, particularly in the context of urban action. The article presents, the innovative methods of guerrilla warfare employed by the military wing of the Irish nationalist movement and the responses of British forces to these actions. The main issues covered in the text are: the Irish Republican Army's campaign against the Royal Irish Constabulary and the Dublin Metropolitan Police, the operation of the new British police units formed specifically to combat Irish separatism known as the Black and Brown and the Support Divisions, and the major combat operations carried out by the republican movement. In addition to analysing purely military operations, the article also describes the functioning of the intelligence services and the most important operations of the spy networks of both sides. In the context of Republican intelligence, the contribution of Michael Collins to the construction of an effective informant structure and the formation of a special liquidation group, the so-called Squadron, is particularly covered. From the perspective of the topic of the article, two specific moments in the Irish War of Independence were considered particularly significant. The first was the events of the so-called Bloody Sunday of November 1920 and the attack on the Customs House in Dublin on 25 May 1921. The article adopts a chronological structure, distinguishing three main phases of the conflict. The subject of the study was the testimony of the participants in the events described, found in the Bureau of Military History.
Rozwój przemysłu zbrojeniowego w Polsce w drugiej połowie lat trzydziestych XX w. Rola generała brygady Aleksandra Litwinowicza

Rozwój przemysłu zbrojeniowego w Polsce w drugiej połowie lat trzydziestych XX w. Rola generała brygady Aleksandra Litwinowicza
(The Development of the Arms Industry in Poland in the Second Half of the 1930s. The Role of General Alexander Litwinowicz)

  • Author(s):Andrzej Wojtaszak
  • Language:Polish
  • Subject(s):History, Military history, Recent History (1900 till today), Interwar Period (1920 - 1939)
  • Page Range:203-238
  • No. of Pages:36
  • Keywords:arms industry; general Aleksander Litwinowicz; Polish campaign 1939; Central Industrial District; strategic security
  • Summary/Abstract:The face of the war threat, the economic effort related to the construction of the Central Industrial District and the implementation of the 6-year plan for the expansion and modernization of the Armed Forces was an action in the right direction, but overdue. The first stage of modernization and expansion of the Polish defense industry, increasing the defense capabilities of the Republic, was to be completed in 1942. This was accompanied by loans (French and British) and an increase in state spending on Polish defense. An important role in these endeavors was played by the Second Deputy Minister of Military Affairs, the head of the Army Administration, General Aleksander Litwinowicz, who, on behalf of the Armed Forces, supervised the implementation of plans related to the arms industry. The lack of sufficient budget funds for the purchase of weapons manufactured by Polish companies on the internal market forced the arms trade abroad, which was carried out (with the consent of the highest military authorities) almost until the outbreak of the war. 1939 not only showed Poland's military weakness, its loneliness in the face of failure to meet political and military alliances (France and Great Britain), but also the need for Poland to wage a war on two fronts. The German-Soviet alliance was a defeat not only for the Commonwealth, but also for post-universal Europe.
Opinie pilotów z czasów II wojny światowej na temat samolotów własnych i przeciwnika

Opinie pilotów z czasów II wojny światowej na temat samolotów własnych i przeciwnika
(Opinions of Pilots from the Time of World War II on Their Own and Enemy Aircraft)

  • Author(s):Dariusz Wybranowski
  • Language:Polish
  • Subject(s):History, Military history, WW II and following years (1940 - 1949)
  • Page Range:239-278
  • No. of Pages:40
  • Keywords:World War II; aviation; RAF; Luftwaffe; Poland
  • Summary/Abstract:The article largely encompasses quoted opinions of pilots regarding the aircraft they flew in air combat during World War II; both on the Allied and Axis sides. These voices provide an authentic record; sometimes subjective; of the technological transformations that occurred in the military aviation of the warring nations. The article consists of two main parts. The first part presents the opinions and judgments of Allied aviators – Polish; British; French; and Soviet. The second part focuses on pilots from the Axis powers – Nazi Germany; Japan; Finland; and Bulgaria. A significant addition is the third section; which discusses innovative aircraft designs that emerged during WWII; particularly jet-propelled planes; along with pilots' opinions about them. The article also addresses substantial changes in aerial weaponry; notably the various 20 mm cannons that enhanced combat effectiveness in the air and German V-1 and V-2 missiles; detailing methods for countering them and the threats they posed to fighter pilots attempting their destruction. The memoirs of aviators representing both sides of the conflict constitute a vital source for understanding the studied issue. Their opinions and evaluations also contribute significantly to comprehending different stages of aviation technology transformation and development; new aircraft types; and the origins of certain design solutions and aerial combat tactics. Throughout the text; sources such as the memoirs of Witold Urbanowicz; Stanisław Skalski; Jan Zumbach; Tadeusz Kotz; Jan Książczyk (John Bennnett); John Kent; Pierre Clostermann; selected US Air Force pilots; Adolf Dickfeld; Saburo Sakai; Eino Luukkanen; and Stojan Stojanov have been utilized. Episodically; the author has also referred to works covering specific episodes related to WWII in the air; biographies of selected pilots; or monographs on certain aircraft from the years 1939–1945.
Imagologia jako sposób na rozpoznanie mentalnych narzędzi walki z sowiecką wielką wojną ojczyźnianą (1941–1945) w tle

Imagologia jako sposób na rozpoznanie mentalnych narzędzi walki z sowiecką wielką wojną ojczyźnianą (1941–1945) w tle
(Imagology as a Way to Recognize Mental Tools of Combat. With the Soviet Great Patriotic War (1941–1945) in the Background)

  • Author(s):Tomasz Gliniecki
  • Language:Polish
  • Subject(s):History, Military history, Political history, WW II and following years (1940 - 1949)
  • Page Range:279-300
  • No. of Pages:22
  • Keywords:imagology; „enemy image”; Great Patriotic War; 1941–1945; Stalin
  • Summary/Abstract:Psychological and sociological tools of combat are much less well known and difficult to assess reliably; and they are not always assigned a meaning appropriate to the results achieved. The author of the article decided to bring closer experiences from the border of psychology; communication science and cultural studies; in order to present the impact of imagology; a science dealing with the ideas of some communities about others; on the war. A group waging a war deliberately influences the cognitive system of its members so that their ideas about the enemy gain a degree that allows them to effectively conduct the fight and; consequently; to win over him. On the way to the open conflict; and during its course; these images pass from a fairly neutral “image of the Other” to an extreme “enemy image”; intensifying the negative emotions towards the opponent. At the same time; in opposition; a “self-image” is built; justifying the need to fight and the positive qualities of one's own group. The Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union with the Third German Reich was taken as an example here; showing the extreme hatred of both countries; manifested in the direct war clash of totalitarian regimes in 1941–1945. The main activity of Soviet propaganda at that time was to dehumanize the Germans as invaders and beasts who deserved only annihilation.
Uzbrojenie oraz wyposażenie materiałowo-techniczne oddziałów inżynieryjnych Wojska Polskiego w latach 1945–2010

Uzbrojenie oraz wyposażenie materiałowo-techniczne oddziałów inżynieryjnych Wojska Polskiego w latach 1945–2010
(The Armament, Material and Technical Equipment of the Engineering Units of the Polish Army in the years 1945–2010)

  • Author(s):Robert Pietrygała
  • Language:Polish
  • Subject(s):History, Military history, Recent History (1900 till today), Post-War period (1950 - 1989), Transformation Period (1990 - 2010)
  • Page Range:301-333
  • No. of Pages:33
  • Keywords:The armament; material and technical equipment of the engineering units of the Polish Army in the years 1945-2010
  • Summary/Abstract:The factor of material and technical equipment had a significant impact on the combat capability of military components; in addition to matters such as education and training of personnel training. In the entire post-war period; there was a significant progress and qualitative development in science; which influenced the search for newer and better technical solutions. This scientific and technical progress was very often used in military technology; especially in engineering troops. This was most visible in the technical equipment. The article discusses the above-mentioned aspects of the armament and the material technical equipment of the engineering units of the Polish Army in the years 1945-2010. The article is divided into three main parts: the first part describes the armaments used by the engineering troops; the second one presents technical engineering equipment in detail; and the third part contains information on material equipment. The article is supplemented witch numerous tables and lists of the equipment used.
Koncepcja wspólnej armii arabskiej Lig Państw Arabskich z 2015 r. jako narzędzia do walki z terroryzmem

Koncepcja wspólnej armii arabskiej Lig Państw Arabskich z 2015 r. jako narzędzia do walki z terroryzmem
(The Concept of a Joint Arab Force of the League of Arab States From 2015 as a Tool to Fight against Terrorism)

  • Author(s):Magdalena Pogońska-Pol
  • Language:Polish
  • Subject(s):History, Military history, Recent History (1900 till today), Present Times (2010 - today)
  • Page Range:335-352
  • No. of Pages:18
  • Keywords:army; Arabs; Joint Arab Force; Arab League; Middle East; XXI century
  • Summary/Abstract:In 2015; thanks to Egypt; the League of Arab States returned to the idea of establishing joint Arab forces. The idea is not a new concept; it first appeared in the 1950s. Under the Treaty on Common Defense and Economic Cooperation; the Joint Defense Council was established as a body responsible for coordinating the military effort of the Arabs. The AL then tried to respond to external conflicts and resolve intra-Arab disputes using peaceful means of resolving them; with a view to respecting the countries territorial integrity and Arab unity. The threats that appeared in the region after the Cold War; including terrorism; and the effects of the social protests known as the Arab Spring on the Middle East – the development of terrorist organizations; civil wars – led to the resumption of talks on military cooperation in the fight against the challenges. At the 26th Arab Summit in Sharm el-Sheikh in March 2015; it was proposed to create a joint Arab force as a rapid reaction force. For this purpose; the organizational structure was reformed and the competences of the Arab Peace and Security Council were expanded. Then; a draft agreement was developed specifying the goals; tasks; method of operation and financing of these forces. Arab countries; despite their initially positive approach to the idea; were divided when this document was prepared. Opposition from Saudi Arabia and the Gulf states led to the project being frozen in time. These countries chose military cooperation by forming ad hoc coalitions.
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