Oblicza Wojny, t. 10, Narzędzia wojny
Faces of War, vol. 10, Tools of War
Contributor(s): Magdalena Pogońska-Pol (Editor)
Subject(s): History, Archaeology, Military history, Political history, Ancient World, Middle Ages, Recent History (1900 till today)
Published by: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Keywords: tools of war; ancient; XX century; military histo
Summary/Abstract: This tenth volume of the Oblicza Wojny (Faces of War) series, contains 12 papers written by archaeologists and historians from Czechia, Greece, Canada, Germany, Poland, Hungary, and Italy. Such a team of researchers not only ensures an interdisciplinary approach to the issue at hand but also guarantees a multifaceted approach.All papers address the problem named in the title of this volume: the Tools of War. We can distinguish several levels of research undertaken by the Authors: themes related to the armaments of particular armies and fortification systems; references to military formations and the impact of their development on the battlefield; diplomacy as a tool during war, and less obvious issues: money, bicycle, and even a lekythos.New approaches to well-known research problems, reinterpretation of old analyses and views, and taking up hitherto unexplored issues are features that unite all the texts, at the same time making them a reading material recommended for both specialists and students.
Series: Uniwersytet Łódzki
- E-ISBN-13: 978-83-8331-462-4
- Print-ISBN-13: 978-83-8331-461-7
- Page Count: 238
- Publication Year: 2023
- Language: English, Russian
Editor Preface
Editor Preface
(Editor Preface)
- Author(s):Magdalena Pogońska-Pol
- Language:English
- Subject(s):History, Essay|Book Review |Scientific Life, Editorial
- Page Range:7-9
- No. of Pages:3
Bow and Arrowheads from Ancient Macedonia: From Hunters to Archers
Bow and Arrowheads from Ancient Macedonia: From Hunters to Archers
(Bow and Arrowheads from Ancient Macedonia: From Hunters to Archers)
- Author(s):Ioannis Bellas
- Language:English
- Subject(s):History, Military history, Ancient World
- Page Range:11-28
- No. of Pages:18
- Keywords:bows; arrowheads; stone mold; archers; hunters; ancient Macedonia
- Summary/Abstract:A passage by Demosthenes, who emphatically stated that it was through light infantry troops and their flexibility, rather than the sluggish Macedonian phalanx, that Philip II of Macedon secured his victories, illustrates how important the organization of light infantry units was to Philip ΙΙ. After describing the lightly armed soldiers, the cavalry, and the mercenaries, Demosthenes made reference to archers. Based on this passage and the rich assemblage of arrowheads discovered in ancient Olynthos and Stagira – Greek cities once besieged by Philip II – the author will try to approach the problem of the presence of archers in Philip’s army. First of all, the analysis of the collected data shows that in both areas the presence of specific categories of arrowheads is evidence of the siege laid by Philip’s troops; secondly, it shows that Philip managed to organize a remarkable corps of Macedonian archers in a relatively short period of time. Although their contribution to Philip’s victories was underestimated by the researchers, it seems that in fact, they played a very important role, especially in the difficult conditions of urban combat.
Depictions of Warriors on the Diosphos Painter’s Lekythos from the Collection of the National Museum in Poznań. A Contribution to the Iconographic Analysis of Representations of Warriors in Athenian Vase Painting
Depictions of Warriors on the Diosphos Painter’s Lekythos from the Collection of the National Museum in Poznań. A Contribution to the Iconographic Analysis of Representations of Warriors in Athenian Vase Painting
(Depictions of Warriors on the Diosphos Painter’s Lekythos from the Collection of the National Museum in Poznań. A Contribution to the Iconographic Analysis of Representations of Warriors in Athenian Vase Painting)
- Author(s):Inga Głuszek
- Language:English
- Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Military history, Ancient World
- Page Range:29-43
- No. of Pages:15
- Keywords:Greek warriors; war scenes; archers; white-ground lekythos
- Summary/Abstract:The collection of the National Museum in Poznań includes a white-ground lekythos with a black-figure depiction of two Greek warriors surrounded by archers in Scythian attire. The warrior theme was especially popular on Greek vessels in the archaic period. The interpretation of representations according to the historical trend sees in the images of warriors heroes from heroic epics. While the vessels are considered to be highly specialised artisan products that were distributed to Greek colonies, often far away from Athens, the author draws attention to other possibilities for interpreting the representations in question.
A Survey of Parthian Military Architecture
A Survey of Parthian Military Architecture
(A Survey of Parthian Military Architecture)
- Author(s):Kaveh FARROKH
- Language:English
- Subject(s):History, Military history
- Page Range:45-75
- No. of Pages:31
- Keywords:Arsacids; Architecture; Central Asia; Iran; Mesopotamia
- Summary/Abstract:This article provides a synopsis of Parthian military architecture by an initial examination of Arsacid military requirements for the defence of their empire. Following an overview of Central Asian circular systems, Parthian architectural innovations, Seleucid-Hellenic influences, and the tripartite system, Parthian military architecture in the empire’s northeast and Central Asian territories (Margiana, Hyrcania, Aria, Bactria), Iran and the Persian Gulf, Mesopotamia and Syria are analysed. The article concludes with a discussion of possible defensive wall systems during the Parthian era.
Money as an Instrument of War in the Ancient Greek World until the End of the Hellenistic Period
Money as an Instrument of War in the Ancient Greek World until the End of the Hellenistic Period
(Money as an Instrument of War in the Ancient Greek World until the End of the Hellenistic Period)
- Author(s):Mariusz Mielczarek
- Language:English
- Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Military history, Ancient World
- Page Range:77-95
- No. of Pages:19
- Keywords:ancient Greece; war; money
- Summary/Abstract:Homer was convinced that peace between states promoted wealth. In Greece during the archaic period, people realised that financial resources were necessary to wage war. They knew that war had to be paid for, although in the 6th century BC, a citizen of the polis was obliged to arm himself at his own expense. Over time, the idea that money was necessary to go to war became fully established. In light of archaeological finds, we are entitled to believe that since the creation of the coin at the end of the 7th century BC in Asia Minor, money was quickly used to pay soldiers’ wages – the coin was a practical means of payment, the quality of which was guaranteed by the issuer with his mark. It cannot be ruled out that the need to pay soldiers was one of the factors that influenced the production and distribution of coins, which may be confirmed by a find from Sardis, where a coin was found next to the body of a soldier. A text written by Alcaeus in the 6th century BC informs us that he was given 2000 Lydian staters for the army. The need to pay mercenaries encouraged the spread of coin production. Coin money became an excellent ‘argument’ when the enlistment of mercenaries was necessary. Thus, money and war became fused. The opinion of Pericles (495–425) relating to the Peloponnesian War 495 – 429 BC (as recorded by Thucydides) is symptomatic, testifying that in the 5th century BC money was a ‘natural’ tool of war. In the 5th century BC, paying mercenary soldiers was commonplace, thus money was used to influence decisions relating to the number of troops and the timing of their use (mainly in relation to mercenaries). During the Peloponnesian War, an Athenian hoplite fighting at the Potidaea received one drachma per day (plus an allowance for ‘servants’ of one drachma). The Peloponnesian War, fought between Athens and Sparta in the years 431– 404, provides an example of another wartime custom, i.e., the issuing of replacement currency. The long-standing conflict between Athens and Sparta forced the Athenians to issue money to replace the well-reputed ‘owls’ when silver was in short supply.In Demosthenes’ speech from 351 BC we find evidence that the idea of conscious accumulation of money for war purposes was commonly accepted. In order to pay the army, temples and their treasuries were plundered (in ancient Greece, temples conducted business). From the 4th century BC onwards, the confiscation of temples’ resources to raise money for war became the norm. This change was brought about by an increase in the number of mercenary soldiers, which, in turn, was also associated with the need for longer war campaigns. These troops had to be paid for their service, indicating that money had become a tool of war. While Plato pointed out that war and money are closely linked to each other, Aristotle developed this idea even further by stating that war was the art of earning money.One particular example of when coins became a tool of war was the operations of the mint at Tarsus – it is believed that the money produced there was intended for Greek mercenaries in Persian service. It is worth recalling that, according to Arrian’s account of Alexander III of Macedon (356–323) expedition to the East, Greek soldiers were worth the money they were paid for their service. Alexander III of Macedon (336–323), following in Philip II’s (357–336) footsteps, set off for Asia with scant, but well-calculated, funds at his disposal. When his general Parmenion (c. 400–330) captured the city of Damascus (where the Persian king Darius III (336–330) had established his quarters) and discovered a vast supply of bullion there, a mint was accordingly established. This mint operated from 330–320 BC and produced coins (at least in part) for military purposes. The quality of Alexander III’s coins was one of the factors that determined their popularity.During the Hellenistic period, the Ptolemaic army and the Seleucid army already had a ‘professional’ nature. Actions that were in line with the view that money had become a tool of war also involved establishing mints in places where none had previously existed. Since Cretan mercenaries (mainly archers) were highly valued, they were used in battles in various regions of the Greek world. At the end of their contract they would return to Crete. Consequently, in the 5th century BC, coins from the Cyclades, Greece proper, western Asia Minor and, in the 4th century, also from Cyrenaica, were re-minted into coinage of the Cretan centres.In this group, the situation of Rhodes coins minted in Crete is special. The presence of Rhodian soldiers on the island was associated with the economic expansion of Rhodes. The Rhodian money with which the mercenaries were paid became so popular that the island began to issue coins imitating Rhodian coins. A tool of war thus became part of the local economy. A considerable amount of Seleucid bronze coins from the end of the 3rd century BC in Thrace is the result of the stay of a large army of Antiochus III the Great (241–187) in that area, which was paid with Seleucid money. Consequently, there were so many Seleucid coins in Thrace that they were accepted on the local money market. Once again, in a different situation, money became a tool of war. A large proportion of Ptolemaic bronze coins from the 3rd century BC minted in Alexandria and Cyprus and found in Greece proper are the result of the Ptolemaic soldiers’ stay there and the Ptolemaic subsidies being transferred to Greece by the first three Ptolemies in connection with local armed conflicts.However, with regard to Ptolemaic Egypt, we have epigraphic material proving that mercenaries from the Black Sea – soldiers of the armies of the Bosporan rulers – served in the Ptolemaic army. This may explain the presence of Ptolemaic coins on the Bosporus. Money earned in Egypt was spent on the Bosporus. This is an indication that paying mercenaries influenced the transfer of coins in various directions, sometimes even far from the place of their issuance. Money became a trans regional tool of war at that time.
The Tools of War in the Cancellieri Vendetta
The Tools of War in the Cancellieri Vendetta
(The Tools of War in the Cancellieri Vendetta)
- Author(s):Zoltán Szolnoki
- Language:English
- Subject(s):History, Military history, Middle Ages, 13th to 14th Centuries
- Page Range:97-113
- No. of Pages:17
- Keywords:vendetta; Cancellieri; Pistoia; Florence; factional strives
- Summary/Abstract:The Cancellieri vendetta, a conflict between members of the Cancellieri clan, took place in the 13th century, perhaps in the year 1300. In terms of narrative sources, we can identify two distinct groups of records: the Florentine tradition and the Pistoia chronicle. The vendetta determined the history of both Pistoia and the Tuscan region, as the antagonisms among the Pistoiain elite caused similar factional strife in Florence as well when the leaders of the two Cancellieri factions moved to the nearby city. The so-called ‘White’ Cancellieri were linked with the Florentine White Guelphs; the other party were linked with the Florentine Black Guelphs. The leaders of the Florentine factions – the Donati (Blacks) and the Cerchi (Whites) – were opponents in everyday politics. The impulse of the Cancellieri clan members had a huge effect on the situation leading to violent factional wars in Florence that ended in 1308. In my study, I analyse the narrative sources of this period, both from Pistoia and from Florence, and examine the tools used in the fights: the ‘tangible’ weapons that were mentioned by the anonymous writer from Pistoia and the ‘narrative’ tools of the Florentine tradition.
Militia Portalis
Militia Portalis
(Militia Portalis)
- Author(s):Ferenc Sebők
- Language:English
- Subject(s):History, Local History / Microhistory, Military history, Middle Ages
- Page Range:115-123
- No. of Pages:9
- Keywords:army supply; mobilisation and deployment; Ottoman wars; battle worthiness
- Summary/Abstract:The militia portalis system was introduced in Hungary in 1397. According to royal decree, each landowner was required to equip one mounted archer for every 20 peasant plots (porta) on his estate. Members of the lesser nobility were required to join their financial resources and do the same for every 20 peasant plots. This system was employed against the Ottomans and other opponents of the realm, though it was most effective against Turkish light cavalry, as their way of warfare was similar to that of Hungarian light cavalry. Warriors serving in the banderia of ecclesiastical and secular lords cannot be regarded as mercenaries in the proper sense of the word (though sometimes they received money for their services) – in most cases they served their lords for subsistence, provisions, land donations, and support for rise in social status. From a military point of view, the soldiers of ecclesiastical banderia were the most effective, and the ones serving in the units of secular lords and the counties were less useful on the battlefield. During the rule of King Matthias (1458–1490) the first mercenary army in Hungarian history was organised, but the militia portalis system was also upheld. In the Jagiellonian period (1490–1526) the system was reinvigorated and served successfully against smaller-scale Ottoman forces, but it was incapable of withstanding the all-out attacks in 1521 and 1526.
Production and Logistics of Crossbow Bolts in the Early Renaissance. Florence and the War Against Lucca
Production and Logistics of Crossbow Bolts in the Early Renaissance. Florence and the War Against Lucca
(Production and Logistics of Crossbow Bolts in the Early Renaissance. Florence and the War Against Lucca)
- Author(s):Simone Picchianti
- Language:English
- Subject(s):History, Local History / Microhistory, Military history, Middle Ages
- Page Range:125-144
- No. of Pages:20
- Keywords:renaissance Florence; Florentine guilds; renaissance warfar; arms and armour; war production
- Summary/Abstract:In the autumn of 1429, Florence declared war on Lucca, to complete its domination over the north of Tuscany. The siege began in December and continued until the mercenary chief Niccolò Piccinino defeated the Florentine army outside the walls of Lucca, but the war continued until May 1433. In this period, although firearms already existed, the use of crossbows was still very important. To satisfy the requests of Florence, the men of Montefioralle, a small town in Chianti, specialised in the production of crossbow bolt heads. In this village of about two hundred inhabitants, every man was a blacksmith and together they produced on average 100,000 metal elements every six months. The shafts for the crossbow bolts were, on the other hand, produced by other specialised craftsmen in the mountains of the Casentino, and were assembled in other places. The Florentine war office, the Dieci di Balìa, took care of the logistics both to connect the different artisans and to send the ammunition to the battlefields and fortresses. Thanks to the documents kept in the State Archives of Florence, it has been possible to reconstruct the entire network of artisans, the management of shipments, and the quantity and expense for these ammunitions.
Capitulation of French troops at Atella (23 July 1496)
Capitulation of French troops at Atella (23 July 1496)
(Capitulation of French troops at Atella (23 July 1496))
- Author(s):Joseph Rafael Gudmann
- Language:English
- Subject(s):History, Local History / Microhistory, Military history, Modern Age
- Page Range:145-155
- No. of Pages:11
- Keywords:Renaissance; Italian Wars; diplomacy; capitulation; 15th century; warfare; French history; Spanish history; history of Naples; Italian history
- Summary/Abstract:In this paper, I’ll present the first phase of the Italian Wars, specifically the period between 1494 and 1498. The study focuses on the French troops’ capitulation at Atella, which was a very important event as the war tide started to turn against the French following their victorious campaign through the Italian peninsula. The main source for the study was Mario Sanuto’s work called I diarii (‘Diaries’) – a detailed record of the aforementioned events that allow us to analyse the situation and gain clarity about the military, political, and economic aspects of the French army’s capitulation.
Cavalry Unit of Jan Buczacki from the year 1501
Cavalry Unit of Jan Buczacki from the year 1501
(Cavalry Unit of Jan Buczacki from the year 1501)
- Author(s):Oleg Hański
- Language:English
- Subject(s):History, Local History / Microhistory, Military history, Modern Age
- Page Range:157-175
- No. of Pages:19
- Keywords:Kingdom of Poland; Ruthenia; Podolia; arms; armour; mercenaries; cavalry; Jan Buc
- Summary/Abstract:This article considers the offensive and defensive armament, organisational structure, and condition of horses in the King of Poland’s 200-horse mercenary company under the command of rittmeister (rotmistrz) Jan Buczacki in 1501. As a part of the permanent defence system (obrona potoczna), this company was stationed in the territory of the Kingdom of Poland’s Ruthenian Lands in order to protect the lives and property of the local residents from the military threats of Tatar and Moldavian forces. The article presents the results of a source study and a statistical analysis of a part of a hand-written military registry from 1501, which is stored in the Central Archives of Historical Records in Warsaw. In the registry records, 24 knights (men-at-arms, or companions – towarzysze), including the captain, were mentioned by their name or nickname, while the majority of the soldiers and squires remained anonymous. In total, the company comprised 171 men (including 24 knights and 2 military musicians) and 29 squires. The records report that the company had 135 pieces of offensive armament (102 crossbows, 30 lances, 3 matchlocks) and 174 pieces of defensive armament (28 full plate knights’ armours, 106 shooters’ armours, 5 chain mails, a breastplate, a sallet helmet, an armet helmet, and a small shield – a buckler). According to the type of armaments, the soldiers of the unit can be divided into four categories: heavy lancers (kopijnicy), arbalists, demi-lancers (półkopijnik), and swordsmen. In addition, the registry includes detailed records describing the company’s horses, which were classified as either spearman or shooters’ horses. In particular, there were 56 heavy lancers’ horses, 137 shooters’ horses, and 7 horses belonging to neither of those categories
Jewels of Crafts – Forging Blades, Fletching Arrows, Making Naphtha, and Manufacturing Black Powder – a Persian Manuscript on Warfare
Jewels of Crafts – Forging Blades, Fletching Arrows, Making Naphtha, and Manufacturing Black Powder – a Persian Manuscript on Warfare
(Jewels of Crafts – Forging Blades, Fletching Arrows, Making Naphtha, and Manufacturing Black Powder – a Persian Manuscript on Warfare)
- Author(s):Manouchehr Moshtagh Khorasani
- Language:English
- Subject(s):History, Military history, Political history, Modern Age
- Page Range:177-201
- No. of Pages:25
- Keywords:crucible steel; sword; arrow; naphtha; bow varnish; black powder; Persia; Iran; Medieval Era; dynasty
- Summary/Abstract:The present article deals with an undated Persian manuscript titled Javāher al-Sanāye’ جواهرالصنايع [Jewels of Crafts]. Many Persian manuscripts provide invaluable information on weapon-making, forging swords, archery techniques, attacking fortifications, casting cannons and making firearms, and military strategies. Most accounts on making crucible steel are part of books on jewels and stones. In my last book Jewels and Patterned Crucible Steel: Books of Jewels, Stones, and Metals, I provided a translation and annotation of the book Goharnāmeh [Book of Jewels] written by Mohammad ben Mansur for the ruler Uzun Hasan Āq Qoyonlu in the 15th century CE (9th century Hijra). The Goharnāmeh by Ben Mansur describes precious and semi-precious stones, animal products, and metals. An essential part of the book deals with blades and making crucible steel. However, the manuscript Javāher al-Sanāye’ [Jewels of Crafts], which is the topic of this article, is about the transformation of stones and metals. The book describes how the craftsmen made crucible steel and expands on how ironworkers used crucibles for conducting other alchemical processes to change and transform the colour of stones, among other processes. Javāher al-Sanāye’ [Jewels of Crafts] is a gem for war-related topics as it provides invaluable information on how to make crucible steel blades, how to identify and classify swords, how to make the adhesive glue for attaching the blade tang to the handle of the sword, how to make glue for fletching arrows, how to make naphtha (burning material) for attacking fortifications, and how to make the black powder.
Чехословацкие военные велосипеды (1918–1939)
Чехословацкие военные велосипеды (1918–1939)
(Czechoslovak Military Bicycles (1918-1939))
- Author(s):David Hubený, Naděžda Kruglová
- Language:Russian
- Subject(s):History, History of ideas, Military history, Recent History (1900 till today)
- Page Range:203-222
- No. of Pages:20
- Keywords:велосипеды; Чехословакия; производство; корупция; общественный заказ
- Summary/Abstract:В последней трети XIX в. развитие велоспорта привлекло внимание передовых армий, которые вскоре осознали преимущества в скорости передвижения пехоты и возможности оставить велосипеды без присмотра, в отличии от, например кавалерии, часть рядового состава которой выделялась для ухода за лошадьми. Уход за велосипедом оказался значительно проще и дешевле, чем за дорогими животными. Чехословацкая армия использовала велосипедные отряды с момента своего создания, У каждого пограничного батальона была своя рота велосипедистов. В начале 1930-х гг. появилось несколько исследований велосипедных отрядов, а вскоре после этого были созданы велосипедные батальоны, присоединенные к кавалерийским бригадам и быстрым дивизиям. В 1938 г. велосипедные батальоны приняли участие в подавлении восстания генлейновских террористов, велосипедисты также действовали на территории Подкарпатской Руси, где подавляли деятельность польских и венгерских диверсионных групп. Как только стало понятно, что велосипеды можно использовать в военных целях, возник вопрос о том, как должны выглядеть велосипеды, подходящие для этих целей. В статье пойдет речь о чехословацких военных велосипедах, их недостаточном качестве и небрежном подходе военной администрации к решению этого вопроса. Исследование основано на архивных материалах, хранящихся в фондах Центрального военного архива – Военного исторического архива (Vojenský ústřední archiv – Vojenský historický archiv) и архивах некоторых производителей велосипедов, а также на литературе изучаемого периода и опубликованном опыте военнослужащих велосипедных подразделений.
Diplomatic Tools and Tools of War: Activities of the Polish Office in Casablanca during Second World War – a Case Study
Diplomatic Tools and Tools of War: Activities of the Polish Office in Casablanca during Second World War – a Case Study
(Diplomatic Tools and Tools of War: Activities of the Polish Office in Casablanca during Second World War – a Case Study)
- Author(s):Anna Ambrochowicz-Gajownik
- Language:English
- Subject(s):History, Military history, Recent History (1900 till today)
- Page Range:223-236
- No. of Pages:14
- Keywords:Polish Offices in France; Casablanca; evacuation; Second World War; Poles in North Africa
- Summary/Abstract:The aim of the article is to present the functioning of the Polish Office in Casablanca as an institution caring for civilian refugees and soldiers located in North Africa. Stanisław Zabiełło was at the head of the network of Polish Offices, while the general supervision over the activities of the Offices in Algiers, Tunis, Casablanca, and Dakar was exercised by Emeryk Hutten-Czapski. The main tasks of the Office were to provide Poles with identity documents, to watch over their living conditions in Casablanca, and in the case of soldiers, monitor the conditions in labour camps or work teams. In addition, the office cooperated with the Polish Red Cross and foreign consulates that assisted in issuing transit visas for Poles in order to evacuate them from North Africa. The Im Fout labour camp was the main centre for demobilised soldiers and former volunteers during the war, who belonged to the so-called ‘Groupe des Travailleurs Étrangers’. Officers and soldiers from the Kasba Tadla labour camp were transferred to Mascara and Saida. By contrast, Missour Safi, Mogador, and Marrakesh were mostly inhabited by Jews. An important issue of the office was establishing and maintaining proper relations with local authorities. This was mainly to be used in conducting more efficient interventions in matters of placing Poles from camps or work teams. In addition, the Office cooperated with other diplomatic missions in Morocco in order to obtain transit visas for compatriots. The facility in Casablanca also oversaw the evacuation of soldiers. In December 1941, the Offices ceased to function under this name and were transformed into the Bureau of Administration for Poles, without changing the nature of the work carried out, including in Casablanca.
