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The Palace Architecture of the Jurchen Towns in Primorye

Дворцовая архитектура чжурчжэньских городов Приморья

Author(s): Nadezda G. Artemieva / Language(s): Russian / Publication Year: 0

Keywords: Far East; Middle Ages; palace architecture; Jurchens; Jin Empire; Eastern Xia State; palace architecture; Nikolaevskoe and Krasnoyarovskoe hillforts; columns; tiles

The archaeological studies of the hillforts that are dated to the period of the Eastern Xia State existence (1215—1233) have been conducted in Primorye (Russia) for about fifty years. The study of the Nikolaevskoye and Krasnoyarovskoye hillforts made it possible to reveal certain typical features of the Jurchen style of palace architecture that developed within the general course of the Far Eastern architecture, forming its own original canons.

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The Collapse of the Siberian Khanate: the stages of the historical process in the north-eastern outskirts of the Tatar World

Гибель Сибирского ханства: этапы исторического процесса на северо-восточной окраине татарского мира

Author(s): Sergey S. Tikhonov / Language(s): Russian / Publication Year: 0

Keywords: Golden Horde; Siberian Khanate; Russian State; Kuchum; Yermak; conquering stages

The destinies of the states which had developed on the basis of the Golden Horde were similar (all of them were incorporated into the Russian State), but differed in details (ways by which they were absorbed). One of such states is the Siberian Khanate of Kuchum: its history needs a more complete description. Thus, attention is paid to the collapse of the khanate as a result of the Russian expansion. Three stages are distinguished: Yermak’s campaign, inactive presence of the Russians in Siberia, systematic actions aimed to destroy the Khanate. It is suggested that the future tsar Boris Godunov played an important role in the organizations of a major campaign led by Prince Yeletsky.

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The Okoshki 1 Burial Mound Site in South-Eastern Transbaikalia and Some Aspects of the Mongol Identity in the 13th and 14th Centuries

Могильник Окошки I в юго-восточном Забайкалье и некоторые аспекты идентичности монголов в XIII—XIV вв.

Author(s): Artur V. Kharinsky,Evgeny V. Kovychev,Nikolay Nikolaevich Kradin / Language(s): Russian / Publication Year: 0

Keywords: Trans-Baikal region; Mongolian period; Mongols; funerary ritual; grave pit; grave mound; coffin; sheep bones

The funerary ritual of 14 graves from the Okoshki 1 burial mound site in South-Eastern Transbaikalia is analyzed. The data from the Okoshki 1 burial mound and other funerary sites of the Baykal region are used in order to define elements of the Mongols’ funerary ritual in the 13th—14th centuries. Basic elements of the funerary ritual are: a) vertical grave pit; b) stone grave mound; c) a single skeleton in a grave; d) dead body lying on the back (supine skeleton). Additional elements of the funerary ritual include: a) wooden chamber; b) north or north-east orientation of the dead; c) presence of sheep bones in the grave (tibia, scapula, and lumbar vertebrae).

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Western Kazakhstan in the 13th—14th Centuries

Западный Казахстан в XIII—XIV вв.

Author(s): Arman A. Bissembayev / Language(s): Russian / Publication Year: 0

Keywords: Western Kazakhstan; Golden Horde; necropolises; Saltak; Urkach; Bulak; funerary rite; Islamization;paganism;

In the Golden Horde period, the vast territory of Western Kazakhstan was one of the ulus centers. The dynamics of political processes in the modern history period related to aspects of ethnic formation was directly inherited from the medieval Mongol states period. A considerable variety and variability in funerary sites of the mid-13th to the early 14th centuries is observed, which is a consequence of migration flows and resettlements initiated by the Mongols. By the mid-14th century, Islamization of population had started, which was reflected in the accretion of pagan and Muslim ritual features and a lengthy existence of this type of syncretic ceremony.

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Golden Horde Hillforts in Western Kazakhstan

Городища эпохи Золотой Орды на территории Западного Казахстана

Author(s): Arman A. Bissembayev,Gaziz A. Akhatov / Language(s): Russian / Publication Year: 0

Keywords: Western Kazakhstan; Golden Horde; hillforts; Zhaiyk; Saryozen; Zhalpaktal; Abat Baytak;urban culture;

The authors examine sites left by the settled population in Western Kazakhstan. These sites existed for a short-time during the Golden Horde and are connected with the Mongol khans’ administrative policy. A study of excavations conducted here from the second half of the 20th century makes it possible to reveal the principal distribution areas of the sites related to the settled agricultural population in the Middle and Lower Ural River, the basin of the Bolshoi and Malyi Uzen Rivers and the region between the Uil and Khobda Rivers. The remains of mausoleums built from burned bricks of “the Golden Horde size standards” uncovered in the region allow revealing traces of large settlements and hillforts in their vicinity.

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Golden Horde Sites of Western Kazakhstan. New studies

Золотоордынские памятники Западного Казахстана: новые исследования

Author(s): Emma D. Zilivinskaya / Language(s): Russian / Publication Year: 0

Keywords: Western Kazakhstan; Golden Horde period; medieval settlements; Zhaiyk; religious complex

The large Zhaiyk hillfort site recently discovered in the Lower Ural River area is one of the few Golden Horde urban settlements known in Western Kazakhstan. The urban development of Zhaiyk is characteristic of the Golden Horde cities; it consisted of homesteads with structures from adobe bricks and irregular layout. A large hammam bath with a cruciform layout was discovered. Two major mausoleums of baked bricks decorated with glazed tiles were investigated on the necropolis. A cult funerary complex consisting of a tower-shaped mausoleum with hip roof and stone stelae in front was studied. Another new site in this region is the Zhalpaktal hillfort, also with farmstead buildings. There is a mosque, which currently is the only known mosque of the Golden Horde period in Western Kazakhstan, and it was uncovered and studied.

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A Mosque and a Caravanserai from Puljay: Golden Horde Sites in Northern Karakalpakstan

Мечеть и караван-сараи Пульжая (памятники Золотой Орды в северном Каракалпакстане)

Author(s): Omar-Sharif Kdirniazob / Language(s): Russian / Publication Year: 0

Keywords: Soutern Aral; Golden Horde; Pulzhay hillfort; mosque; сaravan-seray

Archaeological studies are used to examine architectural and constructive design features of a mosque and a caravanserai at the Puljai hillfort site. In the context of available analogies from the Central Asian region, the mosque can be attributed to the category of pray kiosk-mosques with aivans (terraces). The peshtak portal, residential and household structures are typical of the caravanserai. These structures were used in the Golden Horde era.

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Early Muslim Burials in the Necropolis of Bozok Hillfort

Раннемусульманские погребения некрополя городища Бозок

Author(s): Maral K. Khabdulina / Language(s): Russian / Publication Year: 0

Keywords: Central Kazakhstan; Bozok settlement; Muslim necropolis; mausoleums; khazir-fences

The author briefly defines history of Kazakhstan medieval urban culture studies and describes early Muslim burial structures studied in the Bozok hillfort site. The method of relative stratigraphy has been instrumental in substantiating the start of the Muslim necropolis formation by the late 13th to early 14th century. The Muslim funerary rite of the Bozok hillfort site reflects peculiarities of the spread of Islam in the peripheral regions of the Ulus of Jochi.

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Geography and Peculiarities of Hoards and Stray Finds of the Golden Horde and the Kazan Khanate Period in the Territory of Kazan Province in the Second Half of the 19th — Early 20th Centuries (after reports to the governors of Kazan)

География и особенности кладов и случайных находок периода Золотой Орды и Казанского ханства на территории Казанской губернии во второй половине XIX — начале XX вв. (по материалам отчетов о находках казанским губернаторам)

Author(s): Khalim M. Abdullin / Language(s): Russian / Publication Year: 0

Keywords: Golden Horde; Khanate of Kazan; Kazan Governorate; stray finds; hoards; reports; second half of 19th — early 20th centuries

The article addresses problems related to state regulation of accidental discoveries and hoards in the 19th century and offers an analysis of archival sources about the findings in the territory of Kazan province. Geographic distribution of finds referring to the Golden Horde and the Kazan Khanate period in the territory of Kazan province is determined. The author characterizes all cases of such findings, their content and geography; whenever possible, he provides information on their further storage. At the end, there is a summary of the main results of the study.

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The Dynamics of Medieval Bоlgar Urban Development

Динамика развития городской территории средневекового Болгара

Author(s): Denis Yu. Badeev / Language(s): Russian / Publication Year: 0

Keywords: Volga Bulgaria; Golden Horde; medieval town; historical topography; layout; construction horizons;geographic information systems (GIS);

The author discusses the possibility to apply methods of geographic information systems to study development dynamics of a medieval city and uses Bolgar as a case study. The archaeological components allowing reconstructing the dynamics of the urban area are characterized. These components include: the cultural stratum with good stratigraphy, chronological topography of the finds, and distribution of archaeological urban structures. Among the latter, the following items are identified: monumental buildings, urban planning elements (streets, squares, etc.), remains of aboveground dwellings and household structures, remains of dugout dwellings and household structures, fortification objects, industrial and agricultural facilities (furnaces, traces of arable land), burial grounds and hydraulic structures. The research involved drawing of cartograms to represent Bolgar historical and social topography.

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The Homesteads of the Bulgar during the Golden Horde Period to the Southwest of the Cathedral Mosque

Усадьбы золотоордынского Болгара к юго-западу от Соборной мечети

Author(s): Denis Yu. Badeev,Renat R. Valiev / Language(s): Russian / Publication Year: 0

Keywords: Volga Bulgaria; Golden Horde period; medieval town; layout;homestead;

A study of aboveground and dugout structures in the excavations territory (100-160 meters to the south-west of the Cathedral Mosque) enabled an attempt to single out urban homestead plots dating to the first half of the 14th century. A complex study of a large area (1912 sq. м), distinction of additional construction horizons within the clearly dated stratigraphic scale of the Bolgar hillfort, identification of the main street, as well as the location of certain dugout structures (cellars) and the study of their content made it possible to produce a spatial organization picture of Bolgar homesteads in the area and to determine the dimensions and space of at least one homestead plot.

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On the Problem of the Boundary between the Early and the Late Horizons of the Golden-Horde Stratum of the Bolgar Hillfort

К вопросу о границе между ранним и поздним горизонтами золотоордынского слоя Болгарского городища

Author(s): Vyacheslav S. Baranov / Language(s): Russian / Publication Year: 0

Keywords: Bolgar hillfort; Golden Horde; stratigraphy; periodization; cultural layer

The peculiarities of the Golden-Horde bedding of the Bolgar hillfort in the 10th — 15th centuries are analyzed. It is proposed to consider the 1340s as the boundary between the early and the late horizons of the Golden-Horde stratum, when the administrative and financial reforms of the first decades of the 14th century resulted in further integration of the Bolgar Ulus territory in the economic system of the Golden Horde.

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On the Defensive Structures of the Bolgar Hillfort in the Golden Horde Period

The article addresses data on the Bolgar city fortifications in the Golden Horde period. On the basis of archaeological materials, the reconstruction of the defensive structures original appearance is provided. They consisted of wooden walls made up

Author(s): Airat Gubaidullin / Language(s): Russian / Publication Year: 0

Keywords: Central Volga area; Golden Horde period; Bolgar hillfort; fortification; rampart;moat;

The article addresses data on the Bolgar city fortifications in the Golden Horde period. On the basis of archaeological materials, the reconstruction of the defensive structures original appearance is provided. They consisted of wooden walls made up of horizontal and vertical poles, which were installed on an earth rampart. On its external side, there was a ditch, triangular in cross-section. This is the most important evidence that it had not been intended for filling with water being kept always dry. Along the counter-escarp, rows of vertical logs serving as dragon’s teeth have also been revealed. The finds of coins in the base of the defensive rampart date back to its construction during the reign of Jani Beg khan. The material obtained allows offering a new interpretation of the construction period and operation mode of the fortifications in the Golden Horde era.

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On Fortification of the Bolgar Hillfort in the 14th Century

О фортификации Болгарского городища в XIV в.

Author(s): Vladimir Yu. Koval,Pavel Ye. Rusakov / Language(s): Russian / Publication Year: 0

Keywords: Golden Horde; Bolgar city; fortification; earthen embankments; rampart excavation technique.

The authors consider views of the researchers who have studied the fortification of the Bolgar city (the capital of Volga Bulgaria in the 9th to 15th cc.) in the second half of the 20th century. Their conclusions about the “pillar structure” towers above the 14th-century rampart and the wooden walls of similar design are refuted by the data of the excavations conducted by them. The new excavation data revealed that the rampart around Bolgar represented an embankment with the crest lacking any traces of additional defensive structures. It is supposed that their absence is due to the loss of fortification traditions during the rule of the Golden Horde (13th and 14th centuries).

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On the Problem of Great Bolgar Socio-Historical Topography in the 13th—15th Centuries

К вопросу о социально-исторической топографии Великого Болгара в XIII—XIV вв.

Author(s): Djamil G. Muhametshin / Language(s): Russian / Publication Year: 0

Keywords: Volga Bulgaria; Golden Horde; Bolgar city; written sources; archaeological excavation; coins; mint

The city of Bolgar (Bolgar) has been known since the 10th century. In the 10th — first third of 13th cc. it was the largest city of the Volga Bulgaria, and in the 13th — first third of 15th cc. it became the center of the Golden Horde Bolgar Ulus. On the basis of written sources, materials of numismatics and epigraphics, it is established that the name of the city of Bolgar corresponds to the Bolgar hillfort. Despite transfer of the capital of the Bolgar Ulus to Kazan in the last quarter of the 14th — early 15th cc., Bolgar was a big city and minted its own coins.

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Topography of Settlements in the Vicinity of the Golden-Horde Bolgar

Топография поселений округи золотоордынского Болгара

Author(s): Djamil G. Muhametshin / Language(s): Russian / Publication Year: 0

Keywords: Middle Volga region; Bolgar city and its environs; river crossing; Mongol invasion;coins;

The city of Bolgar situated 50 km south from the Kama river mouth occupied an advantageous geographical position. Starting from 10th century, the territory, which had been closely connected with Bolgar throughout the entire period of its existence up to the early 15th c., began to develop around the city. This territory occupied both the left and the right bank of the Volga. After the Mongol invasion, the number of settlements in the area considerably reduced. The remaining ones, closely connected with Bolgar, gained further development and actively participated in the commodity-money relations of the Golden Horde Bulgar ulus.

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On the Historical Topography of Medieval Burial Complexes in the Volga Mari-Chuvash Region

К исторической топографии средневековых могильников Марийско-Чувашского Поволжья

Author(s): Tatyana B. Nikitina,Elena E. Vorobeva / Language(s): Russian / Publication Year: 0

Keywords: Mari-Chuvash Volga region; landscape; topography; a group of burials; Mari culture; Slavicized Finns; type of economy

Materials of burial complexes help distinguishing peculiarities of burial grounds location in specific landscape conditions. Within the cemeteries, groups of burials have been selected, which make it possible to trace the dynamics of necropolis occupancy depending on the chronology or external cultural influences.

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The Bolgar Ulus of the Golden Horde: Historical Geography

Булгарский улус Золотой Орды: историческая география

Author(s): Konstantin Aleksandrovich Rudenko / Language(s): Russian / Publication Year: 0

Keywords: Middle Volga Region; Volga Bulgaria; Golden Horde sites; historical geography; administrative division;hillforts;

The development dynamics of archaeological monuments (hillforts, unfortified settlements and necropolises) of the Golden Horde period in the Volga Bulgaria territory is analyzed. The history of historical geography studies of the Golden-Horde Bolgar Ulus is examined. The archaeological research of the area revealed not less than 330 settlements, both fortified and unfortified. These data made it possible to determine the territory of the Bolgar Ulus, the topography of individual sites, and the historical context of their emergence and development. Particular attention is given to the necropolises of the nomads who had inhabited the Bolgar Ulus. The necropolises and the permanent settlements founded by this population helped to define the territory of their residence. A hypothesis of administrative division of the Bolgar Ulus territory in the period from the Mongol conquest and prior to the early 15th century is considered. It is argued that there had been a few administrative areas centered on major cities — Bolgar, Juketau, and Kazan. Besides, there had been a special territory inhabited by the nomadic population.

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On Spatial Organization Characteristics of the Settlement System in the Right-Bank Volga Samara Region During the Golden Horde Period

К характеристике пространственной организации системы расселения в правобережье Самарского Поволжья в золотоордынский период

Author(s): Anna F. Kochkina / Language(s): Russian / Publication Year: 0

Keywords: Volga Upland; Samara Volga region; Golden Horde; settlement system; microdistricts; support frame

The sites of the right bank of the Samara Volga region including the Samarskaya Luka (Bend) of the Volga River and the Usa River watershed constitute a special group of the Golden-Horde period sites of the Middle Volga region. An analysis of the sites topography in the context of geographical features of the area in question allowed defining its territorial structure. On the basis of settlements location features, a zonal model of regionalization is proposed. In the territory of the district, two micro-districts are distinguished: 1) the Usinsk micro-district, 2) a micro-district inside the Samara Bend. Each of them is characterized by an appropriate reference framework of settlement, which is associated with the peculiarities of functioning and settling. In the first case, the settlement occupies the dominant position (the Muranka settlement site), while the second district is characterized by the presence of several key points with the linear interconnection system (Mezhdurechensky hillfort, Malaya Ryazan 2 and Lbische — Novyi Put’ settlements, etc.).

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About the Border between the Mamai and the Volga Hordes

Вопрос о границе между Мамаевой и Волжской Ордой

Author(s): Irina Yu. Lapshina / Language(s): Russian / Publication Year: 0

Keywords: Volga-Don region; Golden Horde; Great Internecine Strife; Mamai; Vodyanskoe hillfort;numismatics;

The established opinion of the Russian historiography runs that the border between the Mamai and the Volga Hordes was fixed along the Volga River. A collection of coins dating to the Great Internecine Strife (“velikaya zamyatnya”) period from the Vodyanskoe hillfort site was studied. These data made it possible to conclude that the town on the left-bank Volga area may be related to the Saray region (the Volga Horde domain). Besides, there is a number of indications as to earlier ulus borders along the Don and a minor annalistic evidence concerning an interesting episode in the course of the war between Timur-Khodja and Mamai. All this allows raising the problem of a possible location of the border between the Mamai and the Volga Hordes along the Don River.

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