Researches in the field of the 20th century migration, achieved particular level, however an attempt of the overall look at the phenomenon of the political emigration in Central Europe, starting from II World War until transformations ofyears 1989–1991, is still required. In postwar Poland, it was allowed to write about the political emigration, identified until 1989 as a threat, either in secret papers intended for security service and for a small group of decision makers, or in publications which main purpose was to diminish the very idea of the emigration, or – after some time – in studies aimed to show the emigration only as a one out of many human communities, with no political beliefs and what is more – hostile to the political system of socialist states. In 1990s, two major synthesis of the history of the polish emigration were published: Materiały do dziejów uchodźstwa niepodległościowego [Materials for the history of the independence emigration] (London) and Druga Wielka Emigracja [The Second Great Emigration] (Warsaw). During the following decade several crucial works that extend, complement or revise the findings concerning the functioning of the parliamentarism in exile, the party system, important people’s life, day-to-day problems, as well as contacts between emigrants and Poland, appeared. Furthermore the opening of the former secret services’ archives delivered new types of sources to conduct researches on the history of the emigration. In addition to this, the development of research using sociological methods to study the phenomenon of the political emigration is also considered to have been an important achievement. The result of previous researches – mentioned above – should be treated as a good starting point to the next trail of making a synthesis of the history of the Polish emigration and also as a possibility to create a wider program of study the history of emigration during the Cold War. While concentrating on the 20th century processes of migration reveals the structure and the scale of people’s displacements, there is still a real necessity for the characteristic Cold War-migration to be focused on from the political reasons – the analysis of knowingly conducted state’s policies. Therefore, undertaking a study of this phenomenon seems to be essential to understand the undercurrent of the Cold War. Seeing that, it is important to confront with each other at least three perspectives – the Communist bloc countries, the countries of resettlement and the emigrants themselves. What is more, the synthesis of the history of the 1939–1991 Central Europe emigration is highly required to be published.
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Keywords: Roman Aftanazy; Viktor Svyatelyk; Stanislaw Szczesny Potocki; Tulchyn; Correspondence
The text contains an introduction (about famous Polish archivist Roman Aftanazy and worker of National History Museum in Tulchyn Viktor Svyatelyk) and edition of the correspondece between Aftanazy and Svyatelyk from 80’. Ten letters written from Wroclaw to Tulchyn concerns Stanislaw Szczesny Potocki’s palace in Tulchyn. This information was used by Aftanazy to write the article about this residence in tenth volume of Dzieje rezydencji na dawnych Kresach Rzeczypospolitej (Wroclaw 1996). There a lot of information about a day-to-day life in Soviet Union and People's Republic of Poland too.
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Keywords: S. Jan Bosco; Polish; publications
The author of this article showed the positive role of the religious book and press informing the Polish society of the life and activity of the founder of the Society of Saint Francis de Sales. Even in the lifespan of St. John Bosco, his biographies were translated into Polish and printed in Cracow, Lvov, Poznan and Warsaw. Since 1898, the Polish edition of the Salesian Bulletin entitled „Wiadomości Salezjańskie”, which soon became „Pokłosie Salezjańskie” (in 1916). Between the two world wars, the most publications about St. John Bosco came out owing to his beatification and canonization (1929, 1934). After the War II „Pokłosie Salezjańskie” was being edited until the close-down of the publishing office (1949). The Salesians revived Salesian Publications during the time of the communist censorship (1976), they managed to publish several biographies of St. John Bosco, and two books dedicated to him bring from abroad ( Italy, the UK). Articles on the subject of the Great Educator of the young were published in the internal periodical– „Nostra”, and in the annual „Seminare” which was not coming out on a regular basis in 1975-1988. After having initiated cooperation with the publication Elle Di Ci in Turin, the Polish reader has access to a wide spectrum of books edited in the Salesian Society worldwide.
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Keywords: Ignacy Dominik Radziszewski; Zemborzyn; Felicja Wendorff; magistrate; church collator
Polish landed gentry was once the backbone of national tradition. Every family had among its members land owners, officers, priests, lawyers, and public servants. Ignacy Dominik Radziszewski (1782–1853) followed this tradition. He lead the life of a typical nobleman, though enriched by numerous events connected with the stormy history of Poland. Ignacy Radziszewski was above all a patriot ready to serve the highest values. This is why he took part in Napoleon’s campaigns, in the uniform of a Polish officer, and later helped to mobilise the armed forces during the November Uprising. Earlier, he studied law, which later in his life allowed him to achieve the honourable title of magistrate in his district. The author of this article also mentions other people connected with Radziszewski in different ways, beginning with friendly and familiar relationships, and ending in the professional ones. The historical sources which constitute a base for these reflections have been examined very carefully. This has allowed to display some genealogical intricacies concerning also persons who were not the protagonists of the events here related. These discoveries may result useful to the authors of future studies on the history of the land gentry of the Solec district.
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Keywords: 1956; the Poznań June; American Polonia; the Congress of the U.S. Polonia; press in exile; Karol Rozmarek; Nowy Świat; Dziennik Chicagoski; the issue of Poland after World War II
The article presents the reactions of Polish dailies and weeklies abroad to the events of the Poznań June in 1956. The analysis covered fourteen press titles, issued in different centres of Polish emigration. In 1956 the Polish press was on the brink of a deep crisis. The abundant number of press sources would soon suffer from less and less availability. They demonstrated a tremendous interest in Polish publishers abroad during the events in Poland and their thirst for information was not always satisfied by reliable sources. Starting out from the press image of the events, the Article quotes also recorded the reactions of the U.S. Polonia and the Polish emigration in London and other centres, as well as speeches by American and foreign politicians and comments of the U.S. press – which was not always positively reviewed by Polish journalists. It is evident that the events in Poznań generated great interest from the U.S. public, spurring opinion in the issues of Poland and that the leaders of Polonia tried to use this interest to persuade the American authorities to sharpen their policy towards the Soviet bloc, and simultaneously strengthen their own position – without effect, as it turned out.
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Keywords: Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz; "June Night"; "Zarudzie"; "Heydenreich"; January Uprising; short stories; aesthetization
Three short “insurrection” stories written by Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz in the years 1963–1974 have inspired various interpretations; it seems, however, that there are still many undeciphered codes, references, and allusions. The author’s metatextual comments as well as the implicit poetics of the stories make it possible to consider them as a dialogue with the historical, cultural and aesthetic heritage of the 19th century: as a form of its literary archeology. The article deals with many literary and aesthetic conventions employed in the stories, with the emphasis on the concept of 'sérénité' and on various associations with 19th-century art. Notably, the scope of analysis includes such motifs as, for example, Shakespearian stylization and the Dionissian topos in "June Night", the influence of plastic and musical arts in "Zarudzie" (here the central theme of Mahler’s song), the references to German Romantic lyrics, and Russian realistic prose in "Heydenreich". Besides irony, it is the aesthetization of Iwaszkiewicz’s prose that helps to make familiar the painful yet fascinating history of 19th century Poland.
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Keywords: Podolia; Diocese of Kamyanets; Metropoly of Mohylev; Kamianets-Podilskyi;
The key and basic problem in doing research about the history of the Catholic Church of Latin rite in the eastern regions of the Republic of Both Nations (the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth), after the regions of the Republic were included into Russian Empire, is verification of information about the changes in administrative division, numbers of parishes, churches and chapels and the number of clergy and the faithful. The difficulties refer to period 1772–1939. The data to which the researchers are usually referring were determined on the basis of fragmentary sources from Polish and West-European archives, scientific periodicals and old publications of historians. The paper’s aim is to verify the essential information about the diocese of Kamyanets, for the period before the onset of the Russian repressions following the November Uprising.
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Keywords: radio feature; travel; travel journalism
The article is an attempt to describe contemporary radio features focusing on the theme of travel. We point to different ways of talking about travel in this artistic radio form, through analysis and interpretation, we try to see how, and by which artistic devices, we can talk about worlds near and far, in a medium devoid of images. Our observations are based on listening to dozens of radio features created in recent years. We propose thematic categories for radio features, because the theme of travel is taken by the authors in various ways. In one case, the feature makers focus on the character of the traveler, in another on the journey itself. There are also programs presenting the journey as a kind of escape before war or terror. This diversity also applies to formal solutions. Radio features about travel are characterized by a large variety of stylistic, compositional and aesthetic features. We can also speak about the style of a particular artist, whose talent, sensitivity, ingenuity and aesthetics influence the style of individual programs about travel.
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Keywords: the Benedictines; Sieciechów; a monastery; dissolution
The article discusses the history of the last monks from the Sieciechów Benedictine monastery after its dissolution in 1819. The basic source material for this research included personal files of the monks and secular clergy, the records concerning the work and death of the priests held in the Diocesan Archive in Sandomierz. The reconstruction of the history of the last Benedictines from Sieciechów shows that following the suppression of the monastery, most of them conducted pastoral work in the parishes situated in a few dioceses which existed at the time. The last monks died as administrators of the church in Łysa Góra. The following article constitutes a starting point for further research on the history of the Benedictines from Sieciechów as well as all monks in the period of the 19th-century dissolution of monasteries.
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Keywords: culture; mythology; mythology-based expression; Phoenix; phraseology; innovation
The article aims to present whether and how the phraseme to be reborn || rise (like a Phoenix / phoenix) from the ashes exists today in various texts of culture (recorded after 2000 in the National Corpus of Polish, drawn from the web and elsewhere), how it is present in various registers of communication and whether this petrified lexical unit is undergoing any changes. The analysis is preceded by a cultural introduction into understanding the symbolic power of Phoenix hidden in the phrase, as well as the insights into the systemic (lexicographic) state of the expression and the attempt to establish its source and the approximate time in which it was created.
More...![Krasińskiego Mickiewicz Hidden behind Słowacki? A Note about Tri-Antagonism between the Bards in Krasiński’s “Psalm żalu” [“Psalm of Sorrow”]](/api/image/getissuecoverimage?id=picture_2020_54764.jpg)
Keywords: antagonism between the bards;romantics and revolution;Springo of Nations; Adam Mickiewicz;Zygmunt Krasiński;Juliusz Słowacki
The author, describing ideological polemics conducted between three most important Polish Romantic poets, modifies the notion of the “antagonism between the bards” (typically reserved for the dispute between Słowacki and Mickiewicz) by proposing the concept of “tri-antagonism”. The matter is explained on the example of an analysis of conceptual senses (political, religious, historiosophical) inscribed in “Psalm żalu” [“Psalm of Sorrow”], a work by Krasiński from the period of the Spring of Nations (1848), which was commonly and rightly interpreted as Krasiński’s (an opponent of revolution) last word in a dispute with Słowacki (who proclaimed the idea of the “Spirit − the Eternal Revolutionary”). The author puts forward a thesis that Mickiewicz − with whom Krasiński led a dramatic dispute in Rome in 1848 over the Spring of Nations and the direction of the actions of the Polish community − is also the hidden negative hero of the work. Krasiński referred to this dispute in detail and in a very subjective way in letters to people close to him (including his lover, Delfina Potocka, and the philosopher August Cieszkowski). The author of this article shows that the arguments used by Krasiński in his polemic have been repeated in the “Psalm of Sorrow” and that in the negative portrait of the revolutionary “we” he included the features and thoughts attributed in those letters to Mickiewicz. Thus, the author argues, the dispute between Mickiewicz and Krasiński in 1848 should be regarded as a key element in the genesis of the analysed work.
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Keywords: Holy Scripture; exegesis; history of literature; romanticism; August Cieszkowski; aesthetics; imagination; theological imagination
Polish Romantic philosopher August Cieszkowski wrote an exegesis and historiosophical treatise Our Father, a commentary on the Lord's Prayer, based on the interpretation of hundreds of Bible verses. Polish linguists pointed to the literary values of this text, and this implies a question of the author's imagination. The article takes into account the view of imagination explicably expressed by the philosopher and implied by his text. The final part of the article describes some features of imagination reflected in the treatise. Cieszkowski's work has a lot in common with the poetry of the great Polish national romantic poets: the author treats them as prophets (he also considers scholars to be such). Still, statements in the text about imagination, which is fundamental in the case of poetry, are rather rare. There are even sporadic remarks that marginalize this spiritual power. Instead, there are assertions about the value of statements that lead man to God by moving his feelings. These are sermons and church songs. Many fragments of Our Father's rhetoric come close to such preaching paradigms. The category of theological imagination contained in the analysis of Our Father allows us to consider the type of the author's imagination as clearly theological. It confirms the perceptive function of imagination based on faith: history is a reading of God's Revelation. The interpretative ability aims at proclaiming the “Holy Spirit, the Eternal King.” The ethical commitment marks the cognitive role of imagination. The discourse constantly oscillates between “already” and “not yet” of the era of the Holy Spirit.
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Keywords: Polish-Belarus relations; Polish-Ukrainian relations; Polish-Lithuanian relations; nationalism; feudal abuse; Polish civilisation mission; noblemen
Before the Partitions of Poland, the east territories of the country were inhabited by several nations and ethnic groups. However, from a later perspective, in particular the contemporary one, this common past is differently assessed by particular groups. The common (historical) path divides more than reconciles them. This also applies to the area of terms and definitions. This refers in particular to the civilisation mission of Poland in the East. It was often misunderstood and even condemned. In contemporary times, the countries that were established in the former Polish territories cannot develop relations with Poland due to the historical circumstances. This article analyses examples of the most common conflicts and suggests possible solutions.
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Keywords: Cyprian Norwid; Zygmunt Krasiński; Adam Mickiewicz; papacy; Romanticism; revolution; millenarianism; the Towiańskiite sect; citizen; national bondage; independence
The intellectually and politically tempestuous crystallization of the civic ideal in the nineteenth and twentieth century manifested not only in Europe (especially Western), but also in North and Middle America, and in time – all over the globe. An intense search for the “civic ideal” is clearly discernible in societies comprising the former Polish Republic, whose demise towards the end of the eighteenth century and the subsequent phases of its increasingdecompositionnot only failed to annihilate the republican tradition but in fact intensified authentic debate on possible roads toward modern society in the future independent state. A key role in this important dialogue was played by representatives of the landed gentry and the intelligentsia, the latter emerging in the nineteenth century as a new social formation that basically had no exact counterpart in other countries. In time, a few representatives of other classes also joined this dialogue on the shape of the future Polish state.What is the meaning of the phrase “civic society”? Today, it is used almost naturallyby columnists and politicians representing various positions, but it was virtually non-existent during Norwid’s lifetime, although the very ideaof organizing collective life on the basis of “civic” virtues has an almost immemorial provenance. This article attempts to describe Norwid’s civic thought, mainly by analysing his discursive statements, chiefly in journalism. Norwid was decidedly opposed to any doctrinaire elevation of “humanity” (which he called a “holy abstraction”) over “nation” and “Church,” through which individuals can actually partake in “the work of ages.”Another area in which Norwid struggled to develop clear civic categories comprises visions of humanity’s universal happiness and/or its apocalyptic fall, many of which were promulgated at the time. In his polemics with utopias of “fulfilled history” it is possible to discern clear echoes of ideological debates held at the time, especially ones between mystical and political visions used by various “prophets” to describe the ultimate perspectives for the development of current events whose subject is “humanity” – a category replacing “nations,” which would be thus seen as ending their historical “mission.”From this angle, Norwidwould criticise Skład zasad[A collection of principles] by Adam Mickiewicz– a manifesto of revolutionary transformations of civic rights, which are part of the legacy of the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.In a letter to Józef Bohdan Zaleski, dated 24 April 1848, Norwid expressed his outrage at most theses contained in Skład, which he saw as undermining traditional values such as “homeland,” “property,” “lineage,” “nation,” etc.
More...![Around Origin Zawisza Czarny [Zawisza The Black] by Juliusz Słowacki’s Based on Correspondence Poet and his Friends](/api/image/getissuecoverimage?id=picture_2021_66112.jpg)
Keywords: Juliusz Słowacki; Zawisza the Black; drama; origin; letters; Zawisza Czarny;
Juliusz Słowacki’s drama Zawisza Czarny [Zawisza the Black] is one of the poet’s least described and analysed works. This drama is one of the last literary texts of the poet (next to Samuel Zborowski from 1845), written in 1844–1845. The researchers included it in the socalled “Mystical period” of the work of the poet. It seems that it is still worth asking about the genesis of a literary work, as it is, after all, an immanent part of the history of literature. The article outlines the hypothetical provenance of drama Zawisza Czarny, with particular attention to the biographical context. As the basis for conclusions and assumptions the selected correspondence of the poet to his mother, Salomea Bécu and his friend Joanna Bobrowa. Letters of Zygmunt Krasiński in which he mentioned Słowacki at the time when he was probably working on Zawisza Czarny and later, when writing was completed. The research problems discussed in the text concern: the possible causes of the work, the conditions in which the drama was created, the potential inspiration of the bard and the reconstruction of the biographical context. Considering the work in question in terms of biography is only an interpretative proposal, a set of conjectures and possible references.
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Keywords: Zygmunt Krasiński; Adam Mickiewicz; Cyprian Norwid; Juliusz Słowacki; poet; prophet; corpus; vocabulary; idiolect;
This paper presents the preliminary assumptions of the “Corpus of the Four Poets” project, carried out in cooperation between Polish philologists (IBL PAN, UKSW) and IT specialists (CLARIN-PL, Wrocław University of Technology). The aim of the project is to create a digital corpus containing all Polish-language texts by the authors of the so-called “Great Romanticism”: Adam Mickiewicz, Juliusz Słowacki, Zygmunt Krasiński, and Cyprian Norwid, as well as to develop IT tools integrated with the corpus. The final result will be an online open access database with software. The texts for the corpus have been selected from the print sources that are well-known to readers, which provides the most complete and accurate form of the texts and a relative completeness of the lexical base. The set of metadata and annotations developed in the subsequent stages of the project will enable retrieval of the data on the language of individual authors and their objectivised comparison.
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Keywords: Norwid; Keats; Shelley; Byron; beauty; truth; Promethean struggle;
The myth of Prometheus sacrificing his freedom to give men authority over a powerful element of nature despite the will of the gods has, in modern times, inspired authors of different languages who kept transforming it according to their views. Both Western and Polish poets of Romanticism favoured the Promethean idea. In their Promethean – or Messianic – visions Mickiewicz and Słowacki emphasized the importance of armed or spiritual struggle for Polandʼs independence against Tsarist Russia, while English language poets praised the individualʼs rebellion in the face of the oppressive society. Cyprian Norwidʼs interpretation of the myth combined the individual and the collective. He saw Prometheus as a craftsman whose gift, fire – ʻteacher of all artsʼ – is a tool for ultimate salvation through Beauty incorporated in masterpieces. Norwidʼs philosophy is profoundly rooted in Christian soteriology. According to the poet, the revival of both his nation and of the individual is possible only through arduous work, through creative effort understood as cooperation with Christ the saviour in the attainment of salvation leading to both individual and national resurrection.
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Keywords: economic freedom; public economic law; freedom;
The aim of the article is to define the concept of economic freedom, using the ideas of the most important representatives of this doctrine. The article refers to the chronology and development of the concept of economic freedom, as well as the evolution of the policy of economic freedom along with the specification of the legal foundations determining the status of economic freedom over the centuries. The author refers only to the most important concepts for the issue in question, focusing on: (1) issues related to economic law and economic freedom or (2) aspects relevant to it in a given period. The initial thesis of the research is that economic freedom policy is a dynamic area, as evidenced by the multitude of legal acts implemented or amended every few years. Where specific legal phenomena are studied and need to be qualified at the same time, reference has been made primarily to the existing stock of well-known institutions. Economic freedom is a topic that has been the subject of lively discussion for many years. At its core, at various times, there were difficulties in determining (defining) economic freedom and its position in a given state. The political transformations lasting hundreds of years have caused economic changes in the state, accompanied by legal problems. The issue of economic freedom is related to the formation of relations between various entities operating on the territory of the state, and especially to how the state as an institution relates to entrepreneurs. Economic freedom has a significant impact on modern states, often leading to a change in their organizational model. For this reason, questions arise: What is economic freedom? What was its evolution? What is the attitude of the state to economic freedom? To what extent is economic freedom de facto “freedom” and what does it mean?
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Keywords: Ignacy Erazm Matuszewski; literature; art; criticism; aesthetics; metaphysics; romanticism; positivism; modernism;
The critical attitude of Ignacy Erazm Matuszewski, the father of the colonel Ignacy Hugo Matuszewski, was hallmarked by ideological eclecticism and inconsistencies that sometimes resulted from it. His ideas can be considered as characteristic for a mind developed in the conditions of intense cultural changes of the late nineteenth century. The author of the dissertation Devil in Poetry, educated in an atmosphere of respect for empirical inductivism, aesthetic and critical objectivity, modified his views such, that they allowed both the analysis of literary works of positivists and the assessment of the works of romantics and modernists who focused on metaphysical values. This flexibility let Matuszewski talk about art as a whole, regardless of established historical and genological divisions or differences between individual artistic disciplines. This flexibility also made his views universal, resistant to changing fashions in criticism. The writer’s death on 10 July 1919, which was preceded by deceases of many critics and modernist artists during World War I, created a gap in the Polish literary life at the beginning of the interwar period. Due to this gap, Matuszewski is sometimes called the “great absentee” of literary criticism after Poland gained independence.
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