We kindly inform you that, as long as the subject affiliation of our 300.000+ articles is in progress, you might get unsufficient or no results on your third level or second level search. In this case, please broaden your search criteria.
This study is based on a secret Italian diplomatic document that makes reference to the pressures on the foreign diplomatic missions in Bucharest exercised by the Romanian communist authorities and to the infringement of the diplomatic immunities and privileges by the same authorities. Not only the spying techniques through wiretaps and environmental registerings are highlited, but also the direct pressures on the American diplomats and on the service passport staff (for Austria) to cooperate with the Securitate. The pressures were so great that the head of the Italian Legation in Bucharest required the change of the entire staff and officials.
More...
This study examines the making of the treaties which shaped the „new Eastern policy“ of the Federal Republic of Germany. This was a complicated process which involved complex negociations with the Soviet Union, the GDR, Poland and Czechoslovakia. The government in Bonn also needed to carefully observe the attitude of its Western allies, especially that of the United States, which was of crucial importance in order to achieve a succesfull outcome for its foreign policy initiatives. Domestic politics were also filled with tension because many were opposed to a policy which seemed to consolidate the division of Germany. Finally, in the long run, the „new Eastern policy“ had a profound impact on the international scene by weakening the position of the Eastern Bloc in general and that of the GDR in particular.
More...
This article deals with the impact of the student protests of 1968 upon the leadership of the Romanian Communist Party (RCP) and argues that these events played a central role in N. Ceauşescu’s decision to reconsider the party’s policies towards the youth. In his vision – as revealed by his conversations with other party leaders – the youth had been neglected by the Communist parties which made it vulnerable to other ideologies and predisposed to street action outside party control. N. Ceauşescu believed that Communist parties had to elaborate special policies aimed at improving the political education of students and youth so that social protests as those recorded in 1968 in Paris and elsewhere could be guided and controlled by the Communist parties. The experience of 1968 determined RCP’s leadership to increase its political pressure on students and youth, which culminated in 1971 with the abrupt interruption of the liberalization course initiated years before.
More...
The aim of this study is to shed more light on a period which marks the transition toward National Stalinism. Mainly after 1963, in communist Romania is visible a relaxation of cultural politics, although the party leadership maintained Socialist Realism as mandatory style of arts and literature. Such cultural liberalization occurred simultaneously with the Declaration of April 1964 of the Romanian Workers’ Party, announcing political emancipation from the USSR. The Declaration was considered recently by some historians as a true Charter of Romanian National Stalinism. However, regarding the history of Romanian Literature relationship with ideology one can notice a transitional period. The communist control over literature was subtler in comparison with the 1950s while N. Ceauşescu, the 1965 newly appointed secretary general of the communist party, renounced to invoke Socialist Realism. He changed it with Socialist Humanism, a doctrine which allowed the existence of „various artistic styles and methods“. However, the censorship was reset especially after 1968, targeting primarily literary and student magazines. Step-by-step the Humanist Socialism was re- defined in a censorial way. In 1968, according to more historical sources, intellectuals and ethnic minorities were perceived as main threats for the regime. In order to detect the revival of National Stalinism I examined the inconsistency of the breakup with 1950s Romanian Stalinism, abusive political methods against literary life, and the Romanian– Hungarian cultural relations.
More...
In Interwar Romania, due to the high rate of the so called social diseases which included both tuberculosis and venereal diseases, there was a strong need for public policies to address these matters. Consequently, throughout the 1920s, both the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Public Health Care have made important efforts to develop the existing infrastructure. New education and medical legislation was introduced to educate school population about the need to seek medical help when necessary. Also, students in middle schools were trained to understand the way human reproductory system worked and to recognise the diseases affecting it. In spite of that, studies conducted by Universities have shown that students were affected by the same diseases as the general population that had no access to high education. Despite all the efforts, preventive measures of the social diseases remained unknown to the general public, which proved to be reluctant to address doctors unless it was their last resort. This attitude typical of both rural and urban population was considered irresponsible by doctors and must be linked with the traditional mentality of the Romanian society.
More...
Between 1985 and 1989 the Soviet-Romanian relations have gained new sources of tensions due to the refusal of the leaders in Bucharest to follow Gorbachev's new reformist orientation. Ceausescu's policy faced a fundamental turning point: the transition from political independence and non-interference in internal affairs to that of monitoring and even intervention in internal developments of the Warsaw Treaty Organization countries. Ironically, Nicolae Ceausescu, who since 1965, the year of his coming to power, aimed at distancing from USSR, considered, finally, that the chance of survival of socialism in Eastern Europe might only be the Soviet Union.
More...
This article describes one of Romanian Communist Party’s most ambitious programs of infrastructure development along with its implementation in the context of a command economy. Being demanded both ideologically and economically, the value of the electric power as a symbol became greater with Romania’s communist leadership pursuing the industrial development of the country and trying to secure its energetic independence. Through large amounts of expensive investments, between 1965-1975 Romania’s annual electric power production had increased threefold in ten years, although the power potential had never reached plan targets. However great this achievement was, renewable sources of energy continued to play a small part and electric power management vulnerabilities were far from being removed. Archival research shows who among the political leaders were involved in the planning and carrying out of energy policies during an era of sustained macro-economic growth and how these infrastructure gains made possible the expansion of less efficient industries.
More...
The appearance of the Academy for Social Sciences (ASS) represents the meeting point of several processes that signal the maturation of Romanian communism. The strengthening of Nicolae Ceaușescu’s power meant not only the continuation of the desovietization policy, but also the creation of a Romanian form of communism. Initially, its complexity surpassed the simple assertion of national interests. The end of the 60’s represented, in Ceaușescu’s view, the moment in which one could consider the successes of the efforts to improve the relation with the intellectuals. A period of great reform for communist Romania followed. Among the first measures taken was the extension of the party’s direct authority over social science research. Trying to create a national idea that would combine historical tradition and Marxism-Leninism, science and creation were to be transformed into ideology and propaganda. This has contributed to the birth of a personality cult which had a Stalinist dimension.
More...
The aim of the study is to present the evolution of the Romanian Marxist historiography using the history textbook prepared under the direction of Mihail Roller. Its main purpose was to provide a model for the interpretation of historical events. Following the evolution of editions, we can observe the growing influence of Mihail Roller and the limits of the de-Stalinization in Romania after the XXth Congress of the CPSU in 1956.
More...
E tička poruka kur’anske objave izrazito je usmjerena u socijalnom pravcu. Islamska etika u najvećoj mjeri je socijalna etika. Socijalne vrijednosti utemeljene na Kur’anu i Sunnetu, imaju značenje samih religijskih vrijednosti. Socijalna etika sadržana je i u muslimanskom bogoslužju (ibadah), a ne samo u fikhskim disciplinama koje se bave međuljudskim odnosima. Osjećanje za socijalnu pravdu, briga za slabe, siromašne, bolesne, obespravljene, potlačene, produbljivanje solidarnosti među ljudima, jednom riječju dobročinstvo, čini istinski sadržaj bogobojaznosti (taqwa). O tome karakteristično i upečatljivo govori kur’anski ajet (49 :177) u kojem se kaže kako “Nije dobročinstvo u tome da Istoku ili Zapadu okrećete lica svoja, nego su dobročinitelji oni koji vjeruju u Allaha, i u Onaj Svijet, i u meleke, i u Knjigu, i u vjerovjesnika, i oni koji od imetka, premda im je srcu mio, daju rodbini, i siročadi, i ubogima, i putnicima, i prosjacima, i za oslobađanje iz ropstva, i oni koji namaz klanjaju, i zekat daju, i obaveze svoje, kad se njima obavežu, izvršavaju, i koji su strpljivi u siromaštvu, i bolesti, i za borbe junačke! Eto, takvi jamačno vjeruju i Takvi su bogobojazni.”
More...
With a firm faith in the Prophet’s words that the lasting sadaqa has its value even after the death of the benefactor, Muslims are building numerous social-humanitarian institutions. Amongst these the most significant are imarat and musafirhana. Imarat is a public (charity) kitchen wherein the poor, travellers, madrasa students, scholars, waqf employees and others can have free meal and occasionally financial support. Musafirhana is such an institution where they could, in addition to this could also get free lodging. This institution developed in our areas after the arrival of the Ottomans. Tekiyyas (tekke), considered to be prototype of imarat, were established right after the conquest of a certain area. Tekiyyas were established by dervishes and they were a significant factor in spreading the faith of Islam and the rich Islamic culture and civilisation on the territory of BiH. This article explores the history of the institution of imarat, its social and humanitarian role and its significance in Bosnia and Herzegovina. While collecting the relevant data about the topic it came to our notice that there was very little research done on it. All the revisions through which we tried to present somewhat complete picture of imarat in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 15th and 16th century have just opened a gate for a new research work.
More...
The article draws the arguments from the Islamic sources that often stress the significance of ecology and the relation of man towards his environment, for the analysis of nature and particularity of the topic of ecology in textbooks of the Islamic religious studies for primary schools. The aim of this research was to establish the particularity and the nature of inclusion of the topic of ecology in textbooks for the Islamic religious studies for primary schools. The research analysis covered the textbooks for the Islamic religious studies for primary schools used in academic 2011/2012 year. We used the method of content analysis: the basic text of the teaching units was analysed, and the unit of the analysis in a teaching unit was the content related to ecological value, idea, question or task. The results of the research analysis of the textbook indicate the lack of ecology related topics, and whatever is contained in the text concerning ecology in its nature is mainly facts and information, whereas the values and skills related to the topic in much lesser degree. Thus of the little ecology content that of informative character is more present than the formative.
More...
In Muslim jurisprudence the institution of waqf is a public good categorised as a permanent asset. The institution of waqf in BiH exists since the arrival of the Ottomans. The Ottoman state kept a good record of all the waqfs and made sure that these were organised in accordance to the shariah – legal requirements. With the arrival of Austro – Hungarian government waqfs were left on their own. Inadequate care and a lack of supervision and control paved the way for manipulations that culminated in devastation and total destruction of waqfs. Thus numerous buildings were devastated and many have been used for other purposes. This was going on not only during the Austro – Hungarian rule, but also during the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenians when so called Land Reform Law was imposed, as well as at the time of the Socialist Yugoslavia and its so called expropriation laws. The same fate had waqfs in Bosanska Krajina and the madrassas of Bihać are lost without the trace. In this article the author thoroughly researches and with relevant arguments presents the history and circumstances of the loss of a very significant waqf – madrassa in Bihać and the history of preservation of the waqf land on the territory of this municipality. Main research was based upon extensive private archive of Sadik Ribić and contracts and other documents and court verdicts that allowed the extinction of waqfs during the Socialist Yugoslavia. The methods used in this research were: historical, comparative and the method of textual analysis.
More...
This article deals with Čauševićes’ perception of the Sunnah. Mehmed Džemaludin ef. Čaušević was waiz, writer, educationist, reformer, religious modernist and reisu-l-ulama. In this article we tried to present his understanding of the Sunna in times when Bosniaks were faced with numerous challenges of new and modern era. Čauševićes’ understanding of the Sunnah was mainly rejected by the Muslim population of the time. We may say that the modernist understanding of the Sunnah still survives and has its promoters even today.
More...
This article with twofold research (researching the teaching plan and program and analysing the actual pedagogical practice) attempts to answer a number of questions and issues. It reveals the proportionality of various fields of the Islamic religious studies that have been included by the teaching plan and program in the textbooks and it offers answers and the viewpoint of the main actors of the teaching process concerning optimality of above mentioned proportionality. The results and conclusions of the research do not have an aim to discredit the present condition but to point out the fact that upbringing and education is a very dynamic process that demands permanent learning and revisions.
More...
This article analyses a doctrinarian dimension of the teachings of Islam concerning the justice in a society pointing out the fact that the Muslim viewpoint of the issue of social justice varied throughout the history depending on the interpretations of the main sources of Islam – the Qur’an and the Sunna. The perspective of the Prophet’s s.w.s sunna offers a great deal of authentic directions for the Revelation, considering the fact that it is it’s supreme commentary, but it also gives us a relevant interpretation that helps us to form a coherent perception of the Islamic model of organising society and social justice in the full capacity of its teachings. Educational reform and the reform of upbringing system, bringing up brave and learned personalities that will not accept the existing situation but will, inspired by the life of their Prophet s.w.s., for justice and equality relations in their societies is certainly going to have a significant echo in contemporary Islamic world. Only morally aware and brave individuals are capable of shedding off the models of negative thinking and changing the existing injustice in the society – these are perhaps the most significant messages of the Prophet’s s.w.s. Sunna in the context of social justice.
More...
Khutba – Our naivety – Ishak ef. Sedić Vaz – Ramadan– Mensur ef. Pašalić Religious enlightenment and educational process in the mosques of BiH has been taking place in a number of different forms. Khutba (a sermon) delivered as an obligatory part of Friday jumma – salah and vaz (general lecture) were the most common forms of this education. In Bosnia and Herzegovina khutba and vaz has been practiced as most common and legitimate form of religious education. In this article we present a khutba delivered by Ishak ef. Sedić and a vaz by Mensur ef. Pašalić.
More...
The main goal of this article is analysis of the most relevant business principles of Islamic economy in the context of contemporary economic trends. The most recent economic crises that we are still witnessing, has additionally highlighted all the weak points of the conventional economy and business ethics of the contemporary capitalism and the market economy. The mentioned crises also imposed the need for finding out alternatives that would humanise the existing economic system making it more ethical and socially responsible. In this context the Islamic economy proved to be a good example of joining business and moral principles.
More...