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The ruling house and core tribes of the Khazar empire did not share the same tribal or, in many instances, ethnic origins as those of the Kaghanate's diverse subject population. The Khazar rulers were heirs of the Türk kaghanal charisma. Although aspects of sacral rule and dual kingship can be seen in the Türk and other Inner Asian nomad-based empires, it was only in Khazaria that the Kaghan became a sacralized, tabuized figure. This transformation occurred in the 9th century and may reflect the influence of the Ors, the Khwarazmian-Iranian guard of the Kaghan and the chief minister drawn from their ranks.
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The beginnings of Hungarian history have generated a strong interest from the very first centuries of written culture. My goal is to follow the path from the first chronicles (the second half of the 11th century) to the end of the 18th century, when Hungarian historiography had attained the standard of scholarship. During this long period, both the database and the method underwent radical changes, but a critical attitude represented a constant part of the thinking. This view of our early history is not entirely the same as research into prehistory, because the former focuses on the main starting and re-starting points and the most important emblematic heroes. The medieval chronicles divided ancient Hungarian history into two parts: the Hunnic starting period focusing on King Attila's greatness and the Hungarian one led by Attila's descendants, Álmos and his son Árpád. The humanist writer Bonfini introduced the Avars between the Huns and Hungarians. This triple Hunnic–Avar–Hungarian conception was strengthened by many new details in the 17–18th centuries; it developed and dominated the common historical view. But in 1746 Anonymus's Gesta Hungarorum was first published (after lying in wait for more than half a millennium) and forced a radical turn: the Hunnic and Avar periods fell into the background and permanent Hungarian settlement was now stressed. This change can be measured well in the life's work of the two greatest Jesuit scholars, György Pray and István Katona.
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Earlier on, István Vásáry, professor of Turkology, collected his 13 studies and essays on the ancient lands of the Hungarians and the scholars of early Hungarian history who lived and worked in the 17th–19th centuries, such as the Jesuits Márton Cseles and György Pray. Vásáry's important book contains the revised and updated versions of these collected works.
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The papers offered in this volume, celebrating Prof.. Piotr Bieliński on his 70th birthday anniversary, cover issues of archaeology, iconography and cult, ceramics and other objects of material culture of the Ancient Near East. The chronological and geographical spectrum of these papers reflects the Jubilarian’s core research field of Bronze Age Near East, concentrating on one hand on northern Mesopotamia and on the other reaching out to the Gulf, his colleagues reach even further beyond, to Egypt, Cyprus and the Roman provinces in southeastern Europe. While the bulk of the papers are set in the Bronze Age, a number of the contributions reach back in time to the Neolithic as well as forward, to Roman and even medieval Islamic times.Five of the 42 papers in general explore topics related to Tell Arbid, a site in northern Mesopotamia that Bieliński brought to the limelight, excavating this primarily Bronze Age city with a long history between 1996 and 2010. The authors, all of them team members, discuss various aspects of ceramics (M. Momot, Ł. Rutkowski,), also in terms of what the Bronze Age diet could have been (J. Piątkowska-Małecka and A. Smogorzewska), bioarchaeological data on women from Tell Arbid (A. Sołtysiak) and the Ninevite 5 infant burials (D. Szeląg and Z. Wygnańska). However, no clear lines can be drawn considering the topics of the presentations as they tend to reach across categories. The Bronze Age landscape, urban and non-urban, of northern Mesopotamia appears in contributions presenting past and current archaeological excavations and ground surveys (R. Koliński, M. Masetti-Rouault and O. Rouault), as well as broader views of the results (K. Jakubiak, A. Reiche, Ö. Tunca). This approach comes through strongly in a series of papers that delve into iconographic studies revolving around various aspects of religion and cult, mythology and ruler representationsfrom the Bronze Age through the times of the Roman Empire (L. Bachelot, M. Bietak, P. Dyczek, K. Gawlikowska and M. Gawlikowski, H. Meyza, A. Otto and B. Einwag, R. Pierobon Benoit, P. Steinkeller, I. Zych), including text-based approaches (O. Drewnowska, P. Michałowski, P. Taracha).A special place among these studies have papers devoted to seals and sealing practices, in Mesopotamia (C. Kepinski, M. Luciani, D.J.W. Meijer, P. Steinkeller) and in the neighboring regions in different periods (M. Iskra, A. Pieńkowska). Royal serekhs stamped on jars are cited as evidence for early rulers from the Nile Delta trading extensively with the Near East (K.M. Ciałowicz). Material culture appears also in contributions on Neolithic building materials (M. Białowarczuk), dress and accessories (S.N. Amirov and Y.V. Lun’kova), reworked ivory pieces and animal-shaped amulets (F. Pinnock, C.E. Suter), craft discoid loom-weights for weaving (A. Ulanowska), and a variety of ceramics, from Bronze Age (M. Kelly-Buccellati, D. Lawecka, Ł. Rutkowski) through Hellenistic (M. Momot) to Islamic (M. Mierzejewska). Drumming up interest in non-material culture is a study of early Mesopotamian percussionists (P. Michałowski).It is a sign if the breadth of the Jubilarian’s life achievement that the volume also includes papers on modern documentation standards and their development citing examples from the history of Near Eastern archaeology and current fieldwork (M. Rekowska and W. Nowakowski, P. Zakrzewski), conservation projects (M. Kowalczyk and M. Olbryś) and creative site maintenance (G. Buccellati). The lattermost ties in with an address by M. Al.-Maqdissi concerning the future of archaeological research in Syria.As is fitting for a Jubilee volume, the opening part introduces Stories about Piotr: the customary brief biography and list of publications, but also four essays on Bieliński, not-only-the-archaeologist (W. Borodziej, S.K. Kozłowski, W. Lengauer, and W. Tygielski) – a very personal look at the academic establishment at the University of Warsaw, the Professor’s alma mater and lifelong place of employment, in the past half a century.
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The papers offered in this volume, celebrating Prof.. Piotr Bieliński on his 70th birthday anniversary, cover issues of archaeology, iconography and cult, ceramics and other objects of material culture of the Ancient Near East. The chronological and geographical spectrum of these papers reflects the Jubilarian’s core research field of Bronze Age Near East, concentrating on one hand on northern Mesopotamia and on the other reaching out to the Gulf, his colleagues reach even further beyond, to Egypt, Cyprus and the Roman provinces in southeastern Europe. While the bulk of the papers are set in the Bronze Age, a number of the contributions reach back in time to the Neolithic as well as forward, to Roman and even medieval Islamic times.Five of the 42 papers in general explore topics related to Tell Arbid, a site in northern Mesopotamia that Bieliński brought to the limelight, excavating this primarily Bronze Age city with a long history between 1996 and 2010. The authors, all of them team members, discuss various aspects of ceramics (M. Momot, Ł. Rutkowski,), also in terms of what the Bronze Age diet could have been (J. Piątkowska-Małecka and A. Smogorzewska), bioarchaeological data on women from Tell Arbid (A. Sołtysiak) and the Ninevite 5 infant burials (D. Szeląg and Z. Wygnańska). However, no clear lines can be drawn considering the topics of the presentations as they tend to reach across categories. The Bronze Age landscape, urban and non-urban, of northern Mesopotamia appears in contributions presenting past and current archaeological excavations and ground surveys (R. Koliński, M. Masetti-Rouault and O. Rouault), as well as broader views of the results (K. Jakubiak, A. Reiche, Ö. Tunca). This approach comes through strongly in a series of papers that delve into iconographic studies revolving around various aspects of religion and cult, mythology and ruler representationsfrom the Bronze Age through the times of the Roman Empire (L. Bachelot, M. Bietak, P. Dyczek, K. Gawlikowska and M. Gawlikowski, H. Meyza, A. Otto and B. Einwag, R. Pierobon Benoit, P. Steinkeller, I. Zych), including text-based approaches (O. Drewnowska, P. Michałowski, P. Taracha).A special place among these studies have papers devoted to seals and sealing practices, in Mesopotamia (C. Kepinski, M. Luciani, D.J.W. Meijer, P. Steinkeller) and in the neighboring regions in different periods (M. Iskra, A. Pieńkowska). Royal serekhs stamped on jars are cited as evidence for early rulers from the Nile Delta trading extensively with the Near East (K.M. Ciałowicz). Material culture appears also in contributions on Neolithic building materials (M. Białowarczuk), dress and accessories (S.N. Amirov and Y.V. Lun’kova), reworked ivory pieces and animal-shaped amulets (F. Pinnock, C.E. Suter), craft discoid loom-weights for weaving (A. Ulanowska), and a variety of ceramics, from Bronze Age (M. Kelly-Buccellati, D. Lawecka, Ł. Rutkowski) through Hellenistic (M. Momot) to Islamic (M. Mierzejewska). Drumming up interest in non-material culture is a study of early Mesopotamian percussionists (P. Michałowski).It is a sign if the breadth of the Jubilarian’s life achievement that the volume also includes papers on modern documentation standards and their development citing examples from the history of Near Eastern archaeology and current fieldwork (M. Rekowska and W. Nowakowski, P. Zakrzewski), conservation projects (M. Kowalczyk and M. Olbryś) and creative site maintenance (G. Buccellati). The lattermost ties in with an address by M. Al.-Maqdissi concerning the future of archaeological research in Syria.As is fitting for a Jubilee volume, the opening part introduces Stories about Piotr: the customary brief biography and list of publications, but also four essays on Bieliński, not-only-the-archaeologist (W. Borodziej, S.K. Kozłowski, W. Lengauer, and W. Tygielski) – a very personal look at the academic establishment at the University of Warsaw, the Professor’s alma mater and lifelong place of employment, in the past half a century.
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The papers offered in this volume, celebrating Prof.. Piotr Bieliński on his 70th birthday anniversary, cover issues of archaeology, iconography and cult, ceramics and other objects of material culture of the Ancient Near East. The chronological and geographical spectrum of these papers reflects the Jubilarian’s core research field of Bronze Age Near East, concentrating on one hand on northern Mesopotamia and on the other reaching out to the Gulf, his colleagues reach even further beyond, to Egypt, Cyprus and the Roman provinces in southeastern Europe. While the bulk of the papers are set in the Bronze Age, a number of the contributions reach back in time to the Neolithic as well as forward, to Roman and even medieval Islamic times.Five of the 42 papers in general explore topics related to Tell Arbid, a site in northern Mesopotamia that Bieliński brought to the limelight, excavating this primarily Bronze Age city with a long history between 1996 and 2010. The authors, all of them team members, discuss various aspects of ceramics (M. Momot, Ł. Rutkowski,), also in terms of what the Bronze Age diet could have been (J. Piątkowska-Małecka and A. Smogorzewska), bioarchaeological data on women from Tell Arbid (A. Sołtysiak) and the Ninevite 5 infant burials (D. Szeląg and Z. Wygnańska). However, no clear lines can be drawn considering the topics of the presentations as they tend to reach across categories. The Bronze Age landscape, urban and non-urban, of northern Mesopotamia appears in contributions presenting past and current archaeological excavations and ground surveys (R. Koliński, M. Masetti-Rouault and O. Rouault), as well as broader views of the results (K. Jakubiak, A. Reiche, Ö. Tunca). This approach comes through strongly in a series of papers that delve into iconographic studies revolving around various aspects of religion and cult, mythology and ruler representationsfrom the Bronze Age through the times of the Roman Empire (L. Bachelot, M. Bietak, P. Dyczek, K. Gawlikowska and M. Gawlikowski, H. Meyza, A. Otto and B. Einwag, R. Pierobon Benoit, P. Steinkeller, I. Zych), including text-based approaches (O. Drewnowska, P. Michałowski, P. Taracha).A special place among these studies have papers devoted to seals and sealing practices, in Mesopotamia (C. Kepinski, M. Luciani, D.J.W. Meijer, P. Steinkeller) and in the neighboring regions in different periods (M. Iskra, A. Pieńkowska). Royal serekhs stamped on jars are cited as evidence for early rulers from the Nile Delta trading extensively with the Near East (K.M. Ciałowicz). Material culture appears also in contributions on Neolithic building materials (M. Białowarczuk), dress and accessories (S.N. Amirov and Y.V. Lun’kova), reworked ivory pieces and animal-shaped amulets (F. Pinnock, C.E. Suter), craft discoid loom-weights for weaving (A. Ulanowska), and a variety of ceramics, from Bronze Age (M. Kelly-Buccellati, D. Lawecka, Ł. Rutkowski) through Hellenistic (M. Momot) to Islamic (M. Mierzejewska). Drumming up interest in non-material culture is a study of early Mesopotamian percussionists (P. Michałowski).It is a sign if the breadth of the Jubilarian’s life achievement that the volume also includes papers on modern documentation standards and their development citing examples from the history of Near Eastern archaeology and current fieldwork (M. Rekowska and W. Nowakowski, P. Zakrzewski), conservation projects (M. Kowalczyk and M. Olbryś) and creative site maintenance (G. Buccellati). The lattermost ties in with an address by M. Al.-Maqdissi concerning the future of archaeological research in Syria.As is fitting for a Jubilee volume, the opening part introduces Stories about Piotr: the customary brief biography and list of publications, but also four essays on Bieliński, not-only-the-archaeologist (W. Borodziej, S.K. Kozłowski, W. Lengauer, and W. Tygielski) – a very personal look at the academic establishment at the University of Warsaw, the Professor’s alma mater and lifelong place of employment, in the past half a century.
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This article treats architecture and archaeological contexts as signsthat help us reach the meaning and function of building assemblages.It therefore falls into the framework of the semiotics of space andarchitecture (of the abundant literature on the subject, see amongothers, Eco 1997; Hammad 1984; Lukken 1993). The studyconcentrates on the Obelisk Temple in Byblos and its predecessors,searching for the connection between these sacred buildings from theEarly and Middle Bronze Ages. A hieroglyphic inscription on one ofthe obelisks of the so-called Obelisk Temple in Byblos may help toconclude that the numerous upright stones in the sacred precinct werein accord with the widespread custom of erecting standing stones in theLevant and Asia Minor. They are thought to have been memorial stones(massebot, betyls) for specific individuals, set up all around this temple.It is also understood in scholarship, based on an obelisk inscription,that this temple was devoted to the Egyptian god Herishef-Re‘ as aninterpretatio aegyptiaca of the Canaanite god Reshef. The syncretismwith the Egyptian sun-god Re‘ and the form of the stones as obelisksshows that this temple also served a solar religion. The architecturalhistory of the predecessors of the Obelisk Temple seems to confirmthis. The central of the tripartite shrines of the Temple en L of the EarlyBronze Age forms an east–west axis opening toward the east. A largeobelisk, an Ancient Egyptian symbol of the sun’s resting place on itsdaily course from east to west across the sky, once stood at the easternend of this axis. This idea seems to have been taken over by the Byblites.
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Building on a long experience with community engagementin prewar times, the Urkesh Extended Project has faced theproblems caused by the current war in Syria by expanding therange of its activities and involving on many different levelsthe local communities. Here I touch first on a theoreticalconsideration: the notion of territorial legacy as linking themodern with the ancient inhabitants of the area of ancientUrkesh. I then illustrate two particular aspects of our work,namely, conservation and site presentation: both continuedunabated during the war, and were even expanded. The responseof the local people has been a major measure of success, withlarge numbers of visitors still coming to the site for a surprisingform of war tourism.
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The succession of Late Predynastic rulers is one of the most importantproblems in the research on the beginnings of the Egyptian State.The results of the most recent study and excavations provide newarguments for the discussion. The discoveries at Tell el-Farkha (inthe eastern Nile Delta) have demonstrated that the formation of theworld’s first territorial state was a much more complicated processthan previously supposed. There was one state in the middle ofNaqada IIIB Egypt, dominated by a single political centre, possiblyAbydos. Iry-Hor was probably the first king known to have ruledover the whole of Egypt.
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This articles discusses the different hypotheses concerning the identityof the main god of the Old Babylonian city Nērebtum, focusing onthe texts and theophoric personal names from this period. The mostrecent of these have strengthened the theory that it was the god Sîn.
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From the beginning of human history trade has been major source of growth of civilization and material culture. Economy was the main crux which caused Diasporas what disseminated cultures and religions on our planet. The Silk Road was one of the first trade routes to join the Eastern and the Western worlds. Ladakh also underwent the same process of evolution of trade although it was a difficult terrain but it provides access to travelers from central Asia and Tibet through its passes. Ladakh was a crossroads of many complexes of routes, providing choices for different sectors connecting Amritsar to Yarkand. Again, from Leh to Yarkand, there were several possible routes all converging at the Karakoram Pass. Comparative small human settlements in oases of Ladakh’s desert rendered hospitality to the travelers being situated as halting station on traditional routes. Indeed, such places (halts) were natural beneficiaries of generating some sort of revenues from travelers against the essential services provided to caravans and groups of traders and travelers. Main halts on these routes are well marked with petro-glyphs right from Kashmir to Yarkand and at major stations with huge rock carving of Buddhist deities. Petro-glyphs, rock carvings, inscriptions and monasteries, mani-walls and stupas found along the trekking routes, linking one place to other, are a clear indication that the routes were in-vogue used by caravan traders; these establishments were used as landmarks or guidepost for travelers. Further, proof is derived from several monumental images of Buddhists deities, which are interpreted as signs of early Buddhist culture. Certainly these images may be the result of the perpetuating tradition of rock-carving that is noticed from China to Rome in ancient time. Nevertheless, the rock images may be taken as signs of the cultural exchange between the initiators (Kashmiri) and the local population. The purpose of this study is to establish the larger cultural and historical contexts of the arts, considering the issues of patronage and art production.
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Legal consciousness has been and remains an integral part of the historical evolution of human society, and even more, it, in the context of the historical process of development of human society is identified as a phenomenon that drives, complements and defines social relations and reflects them in the norms of law, or consciousness is a superior form of reflection of the objective reality, proper only to human.
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