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The dictatorship of Gen. Primo de Rivera continued six years and four months. During this period, the General succeeded in exacerbating the relations of the ruling elite with almost all layers and groups in the Spanish society. Education was gradually politicized and became increasingly subjected to the dominant political power. The work of education inspection had to conform with politician deducation, with administration and teachers, and ultimately, with the needs of the established authority and the requirements for obtaining educational degree. Professors in higher education institutions, school teachers and representatives of other educational institutions embodied liberal spirit. They are subjected to strict control by the dictatorship.
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The present paper reveals the reasons for the appearance of the activity of private initiatives (public organizations and private individuals) on children tutelage, development and education in Galichina in the first half of the 20th century, as well as their specific features. The activity of the biggest and most active public organizations, such as Mari Druzhiny, Catholic Action, Ukrainian Catholic Unions, Ukrainian regional society of children protection and guardian ship of young people, “Native school”, “Regional school union”, and “Enlightenment” is in the focus of the study. The main types of activities of private initiatives address various problems related to preschool education and expansion of the network of preschool establishments; tutelage and guardianship of poor, sick and disadvantaged children and orphans; funding of primary and secondary schools.
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This article’s aim is to make the reader familiar with the views of some ofthe most prominent Bulgarian linguists concerning our orthographic reform in 1945. The Bulgarian press presents very interesting debates,disputes and discussions about the necessary and not so necessary changesin Bulgarian orthography. Some of the publications are in response to other publications and opinions. The preparations for the reform began many years before its completion and before the government of the Fatherland Front came to power. The reform was made in six months, but its practical implementation took more than 20 years to complete.
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The Slovak Romantic Movement arises in a time when classicism is in its decline in European art and philosophical idealism and rational knowledge are giving way to intuition, spontaneity and wild imagination. Modern aesthetic and artistic impulses gain popularity in Slovakia in the1830s and meet with a positive response from the young generation off students in Bratislava, Levoиa and Kežmarok. The gradual transition to the aesthetics and poetics of romanticism in the end of the1930s and the beginning of the 1940s brings about a number of metamorphoses in the cultural-historical consciousness of the Slovakromantic author, who, in the spirit of Štúr’s ideal for “unity of spirit andmatter”, creates distinctive romantic norms. He is inspired both byintuitively-emotional impulses and by his own historical destiny, by folk literature, by national idiosyncrasies and the need for literary, cultural and spiritual identification.
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The article revises generally accepted idea of preconditions led to the trial against the general Ivan Valkov in 1954 on the basis of unpublished documents. The text is constructed around the main thesis that the real purpose of the trial is to establish in the public consciousness a strong belief that the Communist Party rewarded justice the highest order. Alongside the communist leadership approached differently to individual participants in the bloody events which had happened during the period 1923 – 1925 – some of them were convicted, while others were not even prosecuted.
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In the beginning of 1916 Bulgaria and Austro-Hungary became neighbours. After a successful campaign in Serbia where both countries obtained favourable strategic positions, a dispute over territories in Kosovo and Albania arose. A crisis in the relations between both countries took place, which threatened to escalate and affect all the countries in the coalition of the Central Powers. Germany tried to be a mediator between its allies, however no unanimity was reached. Whilst the military supported the Bulgarian side, the diplomats of Wilhelmstrasse defended the ambitions of Vienna.After mutual ultimatums caused an extreme rise of tension in the relations and all intentions for a dialogue in order to overcome the crisis failed, general Falkenhayn took the initiative and made a proposal which was accepted by both sides. Still the tension between the countries of the Triple Entente persisted.
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In this paper, the work of Paroria’ 1984 and Paroria’ 1985 expeditions implemented under the guidance of J. Andreev and I. Lazarov with a team of the “St. Cyril and St. Methodius” University of Veliko Tarnovo is presented in an extended form. The results of it are covered in two original publications of J. Andreev, but they do not completely reflect the enormous work done by his team in 1984 and 1985. The expeditions have been implemented purposely discovery of the monasteries of St. Gregory of Sinai, the great hesychast teacher. Established in the first half of 14th c., they rapidly have become a center of attraction for monks from Bulgaria, Byzantium, Serbia, Hungary, Wallachia, Moldova. Three Bulgarian saints: St. Theodosius of Tarnovo, St. Romil of Vidin and St. Roman of Tarnovo have been trained in them. The expedition has been working on the field 28 days within two years. The villages of Zabernovo, Vizitsa, Voden, Ustrem, Brushlyan, Golyam Manastir, Gorno Yabulkovo, Dolno Yabulkovo, Golyamo Bukovo, Malko Tarnovo have been visited. Extremely valuable information about the history, archeology and ethnography of Strandzha and Sakar Mountain has been obtained. Ancient and medieval roads, fortresses, towns and villages, chapels of 18th – 19th c., caves, and many others have been described. Drafts of fortresses have been worked out, rock images of saints and Christian symbols and inscriptions have been drawn again, numerous ceramic fragments of antiquity and the Middle Ages have been drawn. The greatest part of this abundant information has not been published yet and therefore, it finds place in the present article.
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The review of published materials of modern Bulgarian history on the pages of the Journal “Epohi”shows that they reveal in an objective and documentary complemented way different problems from the political, economic and spiritual life of the Bulgarian society. It can reasonably be argued that Epohi succeeded in establishing itself among the scientific community as a historical journal open to presenting different scientific points of view and exhibiting argued topics of debatable in historiography subjects by professional historians from Bulgaria and abroad.
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The Hague tribunal is anything but a model for the enforcement of liberal rules. Its emergence is a classic example of diplomatic impotence and clever use of a “legal ideal” to push a particular political and legal agenda.
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The All-Russian Public Committee (ARPC) for perpetuating the memory of P. A. Kropotkin, the most famous Russian theorist of anarchism, was established in 1921 after his death on 8 February. It reflected many disagreements in Russia’s anarchist movement, as well as contradictions between scientific and political activities within the Committee itself. These unsolved problems led to its conflict with the Soviet Union and the latter’s annihilation. The ARPC’s failure to resolve these contradictions was not its main mistake. However, it had significant scientific, publishing and museum achievements which enabled Peter Kropotkin’s creative heritage to be preserved, at least to some extent.
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On the 100th anniversary of the Union of Bessarabia with Romania, I founded the “Alexandru Marghiloman” Association in Buzau. The three purposes of the Association are the activity of the Marghiloman Family, that of my uncle and aunt, Alexandru and Elena Marghiloman. The branches of “Give Hope” are aimedat children in need and those sufering from cancer. “Nihil Sine Veritas” deals with students who want to pursuea career in law. “The Noble Thoroughbred Englishman” was concerned with the revival of the Thoroughbred English in Romania. We carried out many activities and donations for children and we brought a Purebred English stallion to Romania so that at the Stud Farm in Cislău there are now 5 foals, donated by us to the Romanian State. We have a partnership with the “Alexandru Marghiloman” High School in Buzău, where over 100 students and teachers volunteer. In 2023 we will launch on the market, the famous “Marghiloman Cofee”, whose income will be given to children with cancer.
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The visit of King Petar I Karađorđević to the Turkish sultan is one of the eight visits in modern Serbian history. Seven meetings of Serbian rulers with sultans took place in Constantinople, except for one that took place in Bulgaria. In the visits made before 1878, the Serbian rulers went as vassals. The meeting between the Serbian king and Sultan Mehmed V Rešad in 1910 was the third in a row since Serbia became an independent state. King Petar I Karađorđević spent the second half of March and the first half of April 1910 travelling. First, he visited Russia, then Constantinople, Mount Athos, and finally Thessaloniki. The trip lasted a little over 24 days, six of which he spent in Constantinople. The Serbian delegation led by the king was warmly received by the sultan, the common people, and the Christian population living in the Turkish capital. Upon their return, the members of the delegation were convinced that Turkey would remain on the path of improving Serbian-Turkish relations, friendly agreement, and strengthening of economic relations. This intention was highlighted in the official statement of the Porte published on the occasion of the visit of the Serbian king. In the announcement, it was expressly emphasized that a complete agreement was reached at the conferences of the foreign ministers of the two countries and that the Turkish side will grant Serbian wishes for strengthening economic and trade relations. It was of great importance for the Kingdom of Serbia to remove the obstacles that existed until that time regarding the construction of the Adriatic railway. In addition, practical results were achieved because Turkish officials expressed their readiness for the greatest possible benefits that would contribute to the export of Serbian goods through Thessaloniki. The visit to Constantinople brought success in the issues regarding religion as well, because after four years of resistance, the Patriarchate and the Synod, just before the king’s arrival, accepted the election of the Serb Varnava Rosić as bishop of the Veles-Debar eparchy. The meeting of the two rulers received great attention in the diplomatic circles of European countries, especially Austria-Hungary. The relations between Serbia and the Ottoman Empire, apart from the economic aspect, soon fell into the shadows due to the Albanian riots and rebellions that engulfed the entire Kosovo vilayet. In that case too, the Serbian state tried not to interfere in Turkey’s internal affairs.
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The evolution of the architecture of the city of Chisinau from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century was conditioned by different historical, political, economic factors, etc., which imposed on it a certain stylistic typology of an eclectic nature. The development of industry in European countries and Russia contributes to the widespread use of new technologies and materials in construction. In architecture, the design process is divided into two aspects: 1) technical-constructive and 2) artistic-decorative. There is also a change in the relationship between the two related specialties in the field – engineer and architect. The construction engineer focuses on the construction of roads, bridges, industrial and military edifices, and the activity of architects is limited to the construction of civil and religious edifices with an emphasis on the aesthetic side. One of the architects with engineering training and broad knowledge in architecture is Alexandru Bernardazzi. Its activity includes „technical” constructions (roads, bridges, railway stations, water towers, etc.) and edifices made in various styles (classical, gothic, eclectic, etc.) (City Duma Building, Girls’ High School „Princess Natalia Dadiani”, the Water Tower, etc.).
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The article looks at the problem of the involvement of German Jews in World War I and their perception of those times, using as an example one of medium-sized industrial centres of Germany at the time. Stettin, then belonging to Pomerania province of the Kingdom of Prussia, while not a major centre of Jewish life nationwide, still had at that time a well organized Mosaic community and was an important local centre of the thinking and culture of German Jews. In her research the author reached for source materials which have escaped historians’ attention so far but which make it possible to look at the problem from several different angles. A review of a selection of articles printed during the war in the local periodical Jüdisches Gemeindeblatt für die Mitglieder der Synagogengemeinde Stettin sheds light on the position of leasing members of the community on problems related to the ongoing conflict, examined both from the theological as well as political or financial angle. Copies of Stettiner Werner Cohn’s letters from the front show how involvement in the hostilities and related developments impacted the daily reflections of a rank-and-file Jewish soldier. Meanwhile, the documents of the Stettin Jewish community produced post-World War I, dealing with questions of commemorating the dead and the growing threat of anti-Semitism, which are currently stored in Moscow archives, provide access to a reply to the question about the community members’ ex-post perception of their participation and involvement in the conflict and about some long-term consequences of such involvement for them. An analysis of these sources makes it possible to identify the specific ways in which these developments, unquestionably important for the German Jews, impacted this specific community.
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One of the elements unifying the cultural writing of the 1920s and 1930s was the conviction about the „inundation” of Polish culture by authors of Jewish descent. The struggle against the “Semitization” was then taken up by representatives of the extreme right in the first place, for whom this was a sort of “nation’s self-defence”. Their texts, an incendiary cocktail of hate, aggression and xenophobia, sought to unmark the „enemy” before eradicating it from the domestic culture field. In the 1930s these writers were joined by conservative liberal commentators and even by some leftists. However, their struggle was to be waged without a battle, with white gloves worn, i.e., in a well-mannered or even, as per some proposals, an ethical manner! The author looks in particular at two debates launched in Wiadomości Literackie and Kurier Poranny in 1937, debates whose architects advocated intelligent anti-Semitism while copying nearly all the charges and prejudices encountered in the militant anti-Semites’ publications.
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The question of finding and exchanging apartments, which were an inseparable part of the process of establishing the ghettos, has only been studies on a quite limited scale. In my article I tried to trace back the process of ghetto formation in Kraków and Warsaw from this angle precisely. The reason I selected these two cities was that each of them was assigned a different rank by the occupying authorities and a radically different attitude to the Jewish communities of these towns in the early months of World War II. The article is based on wartime and post-war accounts as well as the wording of classified ads printed in the German-controlled papers: Nowy Kurier Warszawski, Goniec Krakowski and Gazeta Żydowska, which documented the grassroots attempts to arrange apartment swaps between the Jews and the Poles.
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The State Munitions Factory in Skarżysko-Kamienna, which during World War II was subordinated to the Leipzig-based Hasag corporation once it was seized by the Germans, to produce munitions for the III Reich, was the largest of the 64 companies from the General Government area supplying the German forces. From 1941 the Hasag plant in Skarżysko used the work of Jewish forced labourers, for whom over time the Nazis resolved to set up a labour camp on the factory grounds. According to historians, between 25 and 30 thousand Jews passed through this factory camp, while the number of forced labourers who were murdered could be as high as 18,000 or even 23,000. A large part of them were women, chiefly young women, ferried to Skarżysko from the ghettos in the surrounding area, or from the camps in Majdanek and in Płaszów. This article focuses on the situation of female Jewish forced labourers who were ordered to work in the Skarżysko Hasag plant. The analysis involves issued related to daily life in the camp: from the assignment to work in a specified Werk, which due to the diversified nature of the victims’ obligations became an element of survival already at the start, to issued related to food, lodging or hygiene. I also looked at the complicated relations with the Poles, who as Hasag employees commuting to the factory from the town daily on foot had an opportunity to provide food for the Jewish workers. One topic deserving special attention was sexual violence against the Jewesses committed by German and Ukrainian supervisors in the factory. The reason this is important is that there were many instances of rape of the Jewish women, which contradicts the theories that the German operatives, faithful to the National Socialist ideology did not sexually abuse Jewish women during the war. A separate topic was the question of children, both those taken to the camp along with their mothers and those that were born already in the camp. The article also reviews the Jewish women’s survival strategies, with special emphasis on the „cousin relationship,” quite common at Hasag. The study was made from a feminist perspective, understood as a research approach based on the need to supplement the knowledge of the Holocaust with what the women experienced.
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The scope and interpretation of historical events that were taught about in Polish schools under the Communist rule was based by and large on the guidelines adopted by activists of the Polish Patriots’ Union while World War II was still being fought. The topics related to recent history included the questions of the extermination of the Jews. The curricula, drafted back in the USSR, were written by the pre-war teacher and Communist activist Żanna Kormanowa, who played a major role in devising the reformed school structure in Poland, consistent with Soviet guidelines. It could have been the result of her efforts and those of her leftist activist friends that the questions of the Holocaust appeared in the teaching curricula in post-war Poland, even if there were mostly just laconic mentions. This can actually be considered somewhat surprising, considering that the Holocaust was all but ignored in the teaching model adopted in the Soviet Union.
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