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The primary school as an institution was created in controversial circumstances. A sociopolitical and professional consensus was lacking and the political legitimacy of the primary school was under dispute. Furthermore, poor conditions of day-to-day functioning had a major impact on the future of this type of school. The initially-conceived humanistic and democratic function of the primary school was gradually replaced with Communist ideological and political goals in 1948. This caused a serious dysfunction, which was exacerbated by rapidly changing political requirements and an intensification of the selection process. Yet the symptoms of the crisis in 1980 went beyond the school system’s internal problems – and the new democratic system that was established in 1990 has failed provide proper responses to the challenges posed by the old system.
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During the outbreak of WWI, a majority of Poles in Galicia were in favour of the Austria-Poland solution. They hoped that once the Kingdom of Poland was taken away from Russia, Franz Joseph I would become the king of Poland. As a result, a new and powerful state would emerge: Austria-Hungary-Poland. In order to pursue this idea, Poles established the Supreme National Committee and the Polish Legions, a military force. Austria’s military defeats and general weakness of the monarchy put an end to these plans as the politicians in Vienna failed to be equally willing to pursue the solution. The initiative regarding the Polish cause was taken over by Germans and the Act of 5th November was proclaimed. This indicated that the reconstruction of the Polish state would be modelled by the Reich rather than the Habsburg monarchy. On the one hand, the proclamation of the Act of 5th November was welcomed in Galicia: it was the first document taking the Polish cause to the international arena. On the other hand, the end of the Austria-Poland idea led to resentment. Poles in Galicia were afraid that they would be left outside the new Polish state.
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The article present conception and social functions of event tourism. Eventful tourism, as a separate type of tourism, deserves considerable attention, so as develops rapid enough rates. However, in a scientific mind his essence and becoming are reflected not enough. Development of eventful tourism, his problem and prospect examined labours of Bobok В. The row of scientists marks the necessity of the use of eventful resources for organization of tourist activity, in particular Beydik О., Smal І., but it is not presented authors integral system and theoretical ground of essence of eventful tourism. Eventful tourism considerably extends the limits of pleasure all growing necessities of modern tourists, that already not enough traditional trips, where combines, as a rule rest and making healthy with the small amount of excursions. Practicing eventful tourism, people become the living witnesses of most events in the world of sport, culture and art. From the public point of view, development of eventful tourism is very important, as he will realize such important for society functions as: economic, cognitive, recreational and entertaining, that are the basic functions of tourism. The last three functions carry more subjective character, as a measure of cognitive, recreational and entertaining efficiency for every tourist – visitor of certain events will be different. Indisputable is economic efficiency of development of eventful tourism, that allows most optimally to even oscillation of tourist seasonality. For many tourist regions, resorts, cities and small towns of realization of corresponding events is the additional source of money receivables, and if a west is visited yet and by foreign tourists, currency. Therefore in development of eventful tourism, local communities are interested as a rule. Defined stages of development of event tourism. Development of event tourism conditionally can be divided into three basic stages. First stage – from the oldest times second half of 19th of century is the initial stage of development of eventful tourism. It is possible to consider any trips that came true in old times with the aim of visit of holiday or competition the predecessors of future eventful tourism. For example, holiday of Dionis, devoted vintage or the Olympic games. Events were, as a rule, local scale and national. Second stage – from second half of 19th of century to second half of 20th of century is the stage of becoming of the organized eventful tourism. First, who put beginning to the organized trips sanctified to the certain event there was an Englishman Thomas Cook. In 1851 in the London Hade Park large pavilion was built for a trade-industrial exhibition. Knowing about it, Thomas Cook decided to organize journeys on an exhibition for the different categories of population. Third stage – from second half of 20th of century to our days is the stage of mass distribution and functioning of eventful tourism. In the second half of 20th centuries get new lines, of the cities of realization become and other Venetian, Brazilian carnivals get world popularity. Regularly conducted and attract millions of tourists and fans the Olympic Games, world and continents cups from the different types of sport. Begin and become traditional film festivals. Present classification of event tourism. For today there are a bit determinations of that it follows to understand under eventful tourism, and also classification going near his systematization. However, it follows to distinguish a few basic thematic directions: national festivals and holidays, theatricalising shows, theatrical festivals, gastronomic holidays, flower-shows, shows of fashions, auctions, sport events, musical concerts and festivals. Eventful tourism it follows to classify on next criteria: use of corresponding tourist resources; the subjects of basic event; оn scale of event (international level (Brazilian carnival, Olympic games), national level (a festival is in Sheshori on Ukraine), regional (sport competitions of regional level), local level (Days of cities, villages and others like that); regularity of realization (are regular events and events(for example, festival of film in Canny or Olympic games), are unique events(for example, opening of the Suez channel or wedding of the British prince William). It is basic classification of tourism. But she can be perfected yet by other criteria. If to analyse the basic world centers of eventful tourism, then majority them settling down in Europe. And among countries by leaders in relation to organization and realization of different events, that give an opportunity to realization of eventful tourism there is France, Italy, Germany, Great Britain. Some events that is conducted in these countries already have centuries-old history.
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The paper examines synthetic connection of different epochs, countries, genres and types of art in the modern creative cognition and comprehension of social phenomena basing on the experience in creating and realizing the movable art exhibition of Antoni Miro in Ukraine and Lithuania. Two postulates serve as a starting point for this article. Firstly, that the art of XX-XXI cc. has been traditionally oriented to the search of synthetic forms of expression – from the synthesis of remote art traditions (dialogue of cultures) to synchronistic dialogue of styles, interspecific interactions. The term of "synchronism", coined by C.G. Jung, is used here as coincidence of senses in creative process. Secondly, that the art, paraphrasing the modern Lithuanian philosopher L. Donskis, often discovers better problems of the modern world than philosophical works anticipating them in many sense. The subject of investigation is the art exhibition "Power of Imagination" based on the works of Catalan artist Antoni Miro – his graphic series "Wind of People" and illustrations (works from the series "Paint Painting") to the book "Power and Imagination" by Leonidas Donskis. This movable exhibition was held in Ukraine (Lutsk, Dnipropetrovsk, Vinnytsia and Kyiv) and Lithuania (Kaunas). The series "Wind of People" ("Viento del pueblo") is dedicated to the artist’s friend, the eminent Spanish dancer, Antonio Gades (1936-2004). 24 lithographs correspond to 24 lines of poem of the famous Spanish poet Miguel Hernández "Wind of People" (1937). The poet from the town of Orihuela firstly published this poem, on October 22, 1936, three months after the coup d’etat by the general Franco and the beginning of the Civil War in Spain. The same year when Miguel Hernández published his poem, Antonio Esteve Ródenas, who later took a stage name Antonio Gades, was born in a small town of Elda, on November 14, 1936. "El viento del pueblo" encompasses a series that perfectly synthesizes the simultaneity of three languages – poetry, dance and painting. There are three axes of the exhibition, the forth axis is the philosophical work by L. Donskis illustrated by A.Miro’s works. The modern art using various languages and removing traditional borders between types and forms by uniting them as a whole (in terms of literature, painting, performing art or cinematography) acquires additional power, the power of moral imagination. The series "Paint Painting" by A. Miro could be considered on a level of famous twentieth-century dystopias by Yevgeny Zamyatin, Aldous Huxley, George Orwell, and Anthony Burgess, analyzed by Donskis in his book. All authors used similar devices of expression in different genres: allegory, allusion, grotesque, hyperbole, quotation, social satire. If mentioned authors of literary dystopias "seek what such twentieth-century thinkers as Hannah Arendt, Simone Weil, Lewis Mumford, Isaiah Berlin, and Leszek Kołakowski sought in their social and political philosophy", images of A. Miró anticipate to some extent conclusions of Manuel Castells, Francis Fukuyama or Noam Chomsky. The series "Paint Painting" has also a number of analogies in XX century. The best of them is Joyce’s Ulysses, which needs profound commentary. In the same way, any picture by Miro could be provided with extended comments or separate article. If the Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges is known as "the librarian of world literature", then the Valencian artist Antoni Miro could be rightfully called "the treasurer of world painting". The art exhibition "Power of Imagination" showing in Ukraine has united three famous Spanish artists, a poet, a dancer, and a painter, with a well-known Lithuanian philosopher and literary critic, presenting that high synthesis of arts which allows expressing deeper the world of changeable and liquid modernity. Summarizing, one could say that synchronism is not a sole principle appropriate to the art of XX-XXI c., inherited from previous epochs, but the pivotal characteristic of modern art, which using different types, genres, languages and technologies (including the most advanced) easily overcomes physical and conditional borders uniting representatives of various cultures, times and peoples in creative cognition. The analyzed exhibition "Power of Imagination" is a striking instance: the idea of its realization resulted in the creative act of the coincidence of diverse senses, aspirations and feelings. It indicates the future direction for research of modern art seeking to challenge the bounds of canvas and space of galleries.
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Taking stock of the external factors influencing the development (embourgeoisement) of the peasantry on the Hungarian Great Plain, the author identifies stages between 1850 and 2010. She places special emphasis on presenting the influences affecting the life of peasant families. Political events and decisions have always greatly influenced changes in peasant culture and the stability of peasant society. These have been accompanied by changing attitudes. In the period of state socialism (second half of the 20th century) growing numbers abandoned the peasant way of life and traditional culture. Since the latest change of system (turn of the 20th to 21st centuries) there have been big shifts in rural society but a clearly identifiable social picture has not yet emerged. Attachment to family tradition and the desire to acquire new agricultural knowledge are determining features in the attitude of those choosing the peasant way of life. They are the most successful. Those who have not adopted this attitude have two options: migration away from the place where they were born and live (to take up employment in a city or abroad) or marginalisation. Predominance of the latter group could result in rural settlements on the Great Plain losing their character and even their inhabitants. It is therefore of vital importance for the development of rural areas for growing numbers to join the first group and shape the culture and way of life of their environment.
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Already in the last years of the Second World War the peasantry of the Homokhátság region between the Danube and Tisza Rivers on the Great Plain had to activate some of their survival techniques. Some of these were rooted in past peasant skills (e.g. methods of hiding belongings and produce), while others were various adaptation techniques developed in response to the war conditions (e.g. black marketeering, barter trade). This defensive reaction of peasant society was evoked by the introduction of restrictive economic measures by the state (compulsory delivery of produce, system of public supply), then by the fighting and the advancing armies, and inflation. After 1948 there was a radical change in relations between the authorities and the villages. The communist party-state launched an attack on multiple fronts against village society and traditional peasant farming. The method of income withdrawal through compulsory delivery of produce was a minor irritation compared to the attacks on private property. Nevertheless, the compulsory deliveries were one of the factors that gave new strength to the defensive reflex of the peasantry. Between 1948 and 1956 the peasant population of the villages studied responded to actions by the state against the villages with varied and new adaptation techniques. All strata and members of the local peasant society had to resort to these methods. The attempt made by the party-state to divide rural society failed in practice to achieve the goal expressed in propagandistic terms: to turn the kulaks (more prosperous peasants) and the “working peasantry” against each other. Despite all the efforts by the authorities the patron–client relations linking the different strata of peasant society did not disappear, in fact, they were strengthened and served as a frame for the survival techniques.
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This paper intends to shed light on the shifting patterns of the intergenerational transfer of assets in family farms that experienced collectivization in Hungary. Although household-based production maintained its importance after collectivization, only some of the rural households could be considered as entrepreneurial and lead to extended reproduction. The traditional patterns of handing over the farm were abruptly halted, with the immaterial forms of transferring capital subsequently gaining in importance. In addition, considerations for securing care provided in old age became more clearly addressed, and were weighed against the previously dominant emphasis given on handing over the farm to the most suitable son. Through the analysis of the life stories of two families, the paper explores the emerging patterns of generation transfer along the following dimensions: 1) Has the relationship between caring for the elderly and handing over the family farm/enterprise changed? 2) Have different patterns of capital transfer emerged that are dependent on the ability of a family to initiate entrepreneurial household production during state socialism? 3) Since caring evoked the labour of women as either daughters or daughter-inlaws, can we detect shifts in the gender patterns of transfer and women’s ability to convert their caring labour into material assets and status within the family?
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Since the middle of the 1990s, more than 25,000 North Koreans have settled in South Korea, and researchers estimate that a further 20,000 North Korean refugees have migrated mainly to China, Southeast Asia, America, and Europe. Many of these refugees cite economic factors as the main motive for their escape, which more or less coincided with the North Korean famine, but before the 1990s there were two other periods that saw relatively large-scale emigration from North Korea, which occurred for other reasons. This paper identifies and compares the three periods, using archival sources from Korea, Hungary, and the former Soviet Union. It also uses the representative case of a North Korean medical student in Hungary to provide a unique perspective on a number of important historical events, including the August Incident in North Korea and the Hungarian Revolution of 1956.
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In this article I offer an overview of the ways in which the term realism has been understood and used in Hungarian literary criticism, from the introduction of the term into Hungarian discourses in the middle of the 19th century to the post-1989 period, when the term had to grapple with the legacy of its appropriation by the Socialist regime. I examine three specific junctures in the critical trajectory of Realism: the introduction of the term in the 1850s, the uses and abuses of the term by Marxist ideologues, and finally the aversion towards the term that emerged in the post-Socialist era. In addition to examining pivotal moments in the history of this critical concept in Hungarian literary discourse, my inquiry also offers a critical perspective from which to consider an enduring anxiety concerning the achievements, past and future, of Hungarian literary culture, an anxiety that finds expression in a symptomatic concern with the ways in which tendencies in Hungarian culture do or do not relate to cultural developments outside of Hungary.
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Having been himself a witness of these events, László Beke describes the spirit that inspired the Hungarian-Romanian relationship in the beginning of the 1990s. He identifies a kind of hide-and-seek game played by contemporary art and the nation, as well as an effort undertaken in search of good neighbourly relations, somewhere at the intersection of cosmopolitism and provincialism.
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Woodland industries and trades in Hungary’s northern central hills. In the sevententh and eighteenth centuries the region’s glassworks and iron forges depended on wood for fuel. It was then that Slovak forestry workers settled in the hilly interiors of Hungary’s northern counties. Apart from the felling of trees and the carriage of timber, employment came in the form of the fashioning of wooden pit props and shingles, and from the second half of the 19th century the production of railway sleepers. In the hearts of the hilly regions there were many who produced handles for tools and farming implements, yokes and baskets for sale. These they traded on the Great Plain in return for wheat and maize. The technology and modes of employment associated with charcoal and limeburning were prevalent until the middle of the 20th century. Woodland shelters were continually being built by those working in the forests to protect them against the elements. These structures took many forms.
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The topic of my presentation is the intriguing alterations in the functions of religious memorials in a village in Northern Hungary. Máriakálnok, a settlement once nearly exclusively inhabited by German families, as a popular shrine, has numerous religious memorials. The roadside crosses, images on pedestals or the former hermit’s hut are parts of the cult around the shrine as well as have their own religious significance. Historical events have, however, made grave changes in the life of this small settlement. After the Second World War, the German population was relocated and was replaced by Hungarian families from various regions of the country. They had their own traditions and their own customs. This resulted in the decrease in the importance of the shrine and left the religious memorials abandoned and gradually destroyed. Recently, the few remaining German families alongside with the relocated population have regained the right to cherish and present its history so the religious memorials regained their importance. They became an integral part of the historical memory of the former German population.
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Kalotaszeg is a famous historic and ethnographic region in Transylvania (Romania) consisting of approximately 35−40 village communities. The region has raised considerable scholarly interest since its early discovery at the end of the 19th century. A constantly reoccurring focus of studies has been to outline the structure of the region. Although it was not our primary concern, when we started our social anthropology fieldwork at the beginning of the 1990s we soon encountered the problematic issue of how to delineate the external and internal boundaries around and within this multi-ethnic and multi-religious region and how to grasp in-group and out-group relations with a special regard to the context of socio-historical structure of the population in the area. We wanted to understand what kinds of diachronic and synchronic factors stood behind the formation of various networks of human connection interpreted as regional structures.
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There are a number of publications on the traditional lifestyle of the Boshas in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The present survey, territorially restricted mainly to the Armenian-populated historical−ethnographical region of Javakhk (Republic of Georgia), examines the manifestations of Bosha identity at the end of the 20th century. The subjects of the survey are the folk etymology of naming, language specificities, the area inhabited, mixed marriages, occupations, anthropological characteristics, system of prestige and relationships with the neighbouring population, as well as their perceptions and notions. The author has drawn mainly on the formulations of the informants. It is concluded that the present Boshas are an ethnographical group of Armenians of a different ethnic origin and they are still in the process of cultural assimilation into the neighbouring Armenian population.
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In Central Europe the social and cultural processes within various groups of Jews before the First World War were determined by the imperial frames. While the nation states that came into being set the general frames, the attitude of the Jews towards modernity as a process, their religious and cultural strategies extended beyond these frames. The new borders drawn after the First World War fundamentally changed the social and cultural environment in which the earlier Jewish strategies had emerged and functioned; and shaped their attitude towards Hungarian symbolic politics. After 1920 there was also a change in the proportions of the different Jewish trends in Hungary. The group strategies of the denominations and movements represented in the Hungarian-language Jewish press in Hungary interpreted Hungarian symbolic politics after the Trianon peace dictate in different ways and incorporated these interpretations in their discourses. The borders appeared not only in their physical state as an unbridgeable reality that had to be dealt with but also created new borders in the organisation of groups and society.
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In the early 1980s, a new joke cycle appeared in the USA, and has continued to flourish ever since. This is a lawyer joke cycle. Lawyer jokes have been published in book form, and have also been displayed on various American websites. Why is it the lawyer, and not the representative of any other profession or occupation, who is permanently made fun of in so many American jokes? What are the dominant stereotypical traits of a lawyer? What negative features is he hated for? Does the lawyer’s stereotype in American lawyer jokes contain any truth? These and many other questions could be asked in regard to American lawyer jokes. The present study focuses on stereotypical traits of lawyers. All the jokes quoted and discussed in the study can be found with references to their Internet sources. The vast majority of jokes were collected from hundreds of websites in spring 2009.
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