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This paper includes a detailed presentation of some of the most important philological works dealing with syntax. Our research aims at emphasizing the main theoretical ideas in the history of Romanian syntax. It starts with the first grammar books in the 18th century and finishes with the new concepts about syntax, as presented in the latest edition of Gramatica Academiei (2005/2008).
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When conjunctions are employed to link sentences, they become discourse relational devices The purpose of this study is to analyse if the semantic meaning of Lithuanian contrastive conjunctions o (but/when/whereas/while) and bet (but) coincides with the pragmatic meaning and to draw some parallels with their English counterparts. A corpus-based approach is employed to make generalizations on the use of Lithuanian conjunctions and their English counterparts, whereas discourse analysis provides a theoretical framework to analyse the conjunctions in spoken language and distinguish their peculiarities typical of this social context. The research reveals that Lithuanian conjunction bet and its English counterpart but demonstrate similar pragmatic behavior. On pragmatic level both conjunctions bet and but serve to object indirectly, to deny interlocutor’s ideas by first agreeing to them and then contradicting. Lithuanian conjunction o does not have a direct English counterpart. Lithuanian conjunction o, mainly contrastive in its semantic meaning, has manifold pragmatic meanings, therefore, it can be translated to English not only by but and and but also by any other English utterance introducer depending on the context. The focus of the research is spoken discourse which naturally implies certain limitations as it is not so much organized and more open to the recipient’s intervention. Knowledge of semantic meaning and pragmatic functions provides easily identifiable advice on how conjunctions could be used and translated. The object of the research is comparatively new in Lithuania and adds to the research field related to discourse relations studies.
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The semantic models of sentences with verbs of motion in German standard language and in scientific language used in biology are analyzed in the article. In its theoretic part it is affirmed that the article is based on the semantic theory of the sentence. This theory, in its turn, is grounded on the correlation of semantic predicative classes and semantic roles. The combination of semantic predicative classes and semantic roles is expressed by the main semantic formula – proposition. In its practical part the differences between the semantic models of standard and scientific language used in biology are explained. While modelling sentences with verbs of motion, two groups of semantic models of sentences are singled out: that of action (Handlung) and process (Vorgang). The analysis shows that the semantic models of sentences with semantic action predicatives dominate in the text of standard language while the semantic models of sentences with semantic process predicatives dominate in the texts of scientific language used in biology. The differences how the doer and direction are expressed in standard and in scientific language are clearly seen and the semantic cases (Agens, Patiens, Direktiv1) help to determine that. It is observed that in scientific texts of high level of specialization (biology science) in contrast to popular scientific literature models of sentences with moving verbs are usually seldom found. They are substituted by denominative constructions. In conclusions it is shown that this analysis can be important in methodics, especially planning material for teaching professional-scientific language.
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At the level of the clause as representation we reconsider the proposition of Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) that there exists continuity between grammar and lexis. In English and German clauses, we shall examine verbal derivatives formed through prefixation with regard to the process types they actualize in the clauses. Prefixation involves the modification of the semantic properties of the base, which requires different configurations of semantic roles in a clause in functional terms. The idea that lexicogrammar is a core of the wording of the clause will be examined in relation to morphologically induced semantic modification resulting in the change in Transitivity configurations with different process types actualized by the base and the verbal derivative.
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The paper studies the semantic and pragmatic potential of female nominations, which arised as a result of gender transposition (i.e. the syntactic phraseologisms formed on the model "the man (masculinical — who, what) in the skirt"). Some formal and semantic aspects of those nominations are described here taking into account the principle of dominative masculinity as a consequence of the androcentricity of languages of the postpatriarchal type as well as the impacts of stereotypes of masculinity and femininity. An investigation is made on the material of Russian last decade media, including electronic sources, fiction texts, online forums and blogs.
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Euphemisms are forms of the language used in communication in order to replace awkward, inappropriate and undesirable words. On the other hand, the words that are prohibited and undesirable in a society are named the linguistic taboos. Since these two terms have completely opposite meaning, it is particularly interesting to deal with their use at the same time. Their expressive and impressive values in different functional styles are different. This paper deals with the use and linguistic – stylistic values of euphemisms and taboos in different functional styles.
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The aim of this paper is to apply Chomsky’s theory of agreement and case assignment to Bosnian language. This theory argues that agreement involves a relationship between a probe and a goal. Some features enter the derivation already valued (the tense feature on T and the φ-features on nominal expressions), whereas others (the φ-features on T and the case feature on nominals) are initially unvalued and are assigned value in the case of derivation via a Feature Valuation operation.
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The goal of this research is to explore the complexity of sentence structures of prose books for children.The following problems: 1) To see, or the algorithms based on trigrams and suitable, for example, for the English language are applicable to the Lithuanian language studies. 2) To make (if possible) the linear regression model, which described the parts of sentence in subject and predicate structures, and 3) to make (if possible) the model to describe the length of the sentence.The complexity of sentence structure can be conceived as depth and width of a sentence according to the words subordinate to the main parts of sentence (the subject and predicate). Also very important is the distance between the adjacent rank parts of the sentence.In this work were analyzed only the simple sentences the structure of which can be represented by a graph-tree. So, it cannot be argued that the trigram statistics are suitable for Lithuanian language. Though, for example, even the 93.13% of the distances from the subject to directly related parts of the sentence are not more than 2, but for predicate – its 71.32%. Was made the linear regression model, which described the parts of sentence in predicate structures. This model correctly predicts 34.34% of data.Was made the linear regression model, which described the length of the sentence, but only predicates and information about its go in this model.
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Mastering the use of prepositions in learning a foreign language is an extremely important, but also a complex process. Frequently, in this section of grammar in the languages without noun declension,additional problems may occur in the use of certain prepositions, such as in and a in the Italian language. In order to understand the logic of use of these prepositions, we must consider their emergence, historical development as well as their current status in the Italian language.
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Du’a (supplication) plays a significant role in the life of a Muslim. Through Du’a man addresses the Almighty Allah with the purpose of gaining His mercy or forgiveness. Du’a is the way of asking for some worldly or material goods but also a way of witnessing Allah’s oneness. Thus we show our submissiveness in front of the Creator reflecting love for Him and emphasizing the fact that we can rely only upon His help. That is why du’a, especially of the Qur’anic expression, was, in different aspects including its linguistic dimension, often a subject of research of Islamic scholars. Considering the fact that this aspect of du’a in the Qur’an was very rarely researched in our language, with this article we aimed to analyze characteristics of the syntax of the Qur’anic expression, wherein in a form of supplication we address the Creator with purpose of gaining some benefit or His protection from evil in this world or in hereafter. Sentences of the Qur’an expressing a du’a are known as ğumal du‘ā’iyya (supplication sentences), they take form of imperative, prohibitive or interrogative7 sentences representing a kind of demanding performative sentences (ğumal inšā’iyya ṭalabiyya), and also in a form of declarative sentences (ğumal ẖabariyya) which, in that case, express the meaning of performative expression. In all these kinds of sentences the speaker is, in a metaphorical sense of imperative (amr) or prohibition (nahy), in a humble and submissive manner addressing the Creator. All these sentences, besides expressing profound meaning, represent a specific kind of stylistic expression with a variety of stylistic characteristics.
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It is important to interview a child witness or victim in the criminal justice system in such a way that the information retrieved from a child would be accurate. The aim of the study was to examine the effect of the word order to the quality and quantity of the information. A hundred children (four- and six-year-olds) participated in an experiment where they saw an unfamiliar person and in the next day answered questions about the person. In asking questions different word order was used, i.e. whether the verb was in the middle or in the end of the sentence. For one group of children the questions were asked using only one or the other type of word order, for another group of the children the questions involved both type of word order. The results revealed that the word order itself did not have an effect to the quality nor quantity of the information. Six-year-olds were more accurate than four-year-olds in answering the questions. However, in comparison of whether only one type of word order (verb only in the middle or verb at the end of the questions) or random type of word order (in some questions verb in the middle and in some questions verb at the end) was used, statistically significant differences emerged in both total length and in accuracy of the answer favouring the case where only one type of word order was used. It can be suggested that in interviewing children only one type of word order (verb only in the middle or verb at the end of the questions) should be used.
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This paper investigates a class of verb-particle combinations in Estonian and their status as particle verbs vs. syntactic phrases. The paper first gives a brief overview of the main difficulties with defining and classifying particle verbs in Estonian (the difference between noun-verb combinations and adverb-verb combinations; verbal particle (afiksaaladverb) as a separate word class in Estonian, etc.). The second part of the paper presents the results of a prosodic study. The study has two primary aims: 1. To ascertain whether we can use prosody to investigate the grammatical status of verb-particle combinations, and 2. to contribute to the discussion of the lexical vs. syntactic nature of compositional verb-particle combinations in Estonian. The results of the study suggest that complex predicates and syntactics phrases are prosodically different, and, consequently, that prosodic analysis can be used as a method to study the lexical vs. phrasal status of verb-particle combinations. As to the status of compositional verb-particle combinations, the results support their treatment as complex predicates rather than phrases. The results further suggest that elements that are intermediate between lexicon and syntax may also be in some sense located on a prosodic continuum.
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The paper analyses relational and declarative clauses in the manuscript titled Tuhfe-i Nâdiriyât-i Şuglî, which was in Sarajevo written by Osman Şugli in the 17th century in Ottoman Turkish. The autograph may be found in the Historical Archives of Sarajevo (sign. R–456). The analysis pertains to Şugli’s commentary of Emsile (fol. 64–117) which was used as a textbook for teaching the Arabic language in Ottoman maddrasahs. While conducting the analysis of the Turkish language used by Osman Şugli, relational and declarative clauses and constructions are examined in relation to their function and grammatical forms used. The paper proposes that literary language at the time was used in textbooks on grammar. The Turkish language of Osman Şugli is presented as a sample of the usage of language in scientific discourse. It may be concluded that the most frequent are complex subordinate clauses of relational and declarative value where the main clause is positioned at the beginning of the sentence and followed by the ki conjunction by means of which the subordinate clause is joined. In the present corpus, belonging to the genre of scientific prose, such a sentence structure demonstrates to be the linguistic means by which scientific facts and arguments are presented. The complex subordinate clause described above, which is different from the more natural way in the Turkish syntax of positioning the subordinate element in preposition, seems to intensify statements in the scientific discourse. It has also been concluded that these sentence structures express general views and ideas. The analysis also comprises phrases containing verbal adjectives and verbal nouns ending with –dIk and –mA.
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In this paper we deal with some (new) guidelines for analyzing the syntax of the language and style of writers through the comparison of various applied and theoretical stylistic research. As a starting point to this study we compare the principles, methods and models of stylistic and dialectological syntax, finding new guidelines for the analysis of syntax in language and style, especially taking into account the basic principles of syntax as a separate linguistic discipline.
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The subject of this research is sintactic analysis of verb forms in Goran speech in comparison with the same in Bosnian language. he work is organized in two parts. Part one, generalizes the discussion about Goran speech, while part two is about specific discussions and comparative analysis. Especially it determines the differences between complex verb forms in Goran and Bosnian language. Also it addresses the size of mentioned sintactic differences and throw a series of examples specifically refers to them.
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In recent decades, Croatian syntax has been continuously recording more examples of ‘syntactic borrowing’ that have become a part of Croatian linguistic reality by means of electronic media. The English language is nowadays most commonly considered to be the main culprit of the disintegration of the Croatian linguistic, and therefore syntactic, norm. However, we are also witnessing the transfer of syntactic constructions from one functional style to another for no reason and, of course, completely incorrectly. This paper provides an overview of contemporary grammatical and advisory literature on the linguistic features of the Croatian syntax at the turn of the 21st century. The examples given have been taken from the journalistic and conversational functional styles.
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This paper deals with the analysis of syntactic-semantic characteristics of relative clauses in Old Serbian Novel About Troy (15th century). Excerpted examples are divided into three groups: 1) Free relative clauses, 2) Relative clauses with formal antecedent, 3) Relative clauses with nominal antecedent. Statistical analysis of the results was performed with reference to the situation in Old Serbian, Serbian Church Slavonic, standard Sebian and dialect (Banat vernaculars of the Šumadija-Vojvodina dialect). The analysis has shown, among other things, that relative clauses in the Novel About Troy have more characteristics of spoken language than Old Serbian legal documents (e.g. high percentage of free relative clauses with the relative pronoun koji). We found that the syntactic level of this text is a unique combination of written and spoken language features, worth further examinations.
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In this paper there is analyzed the usage of future tense of the verbs in different categories of text, modal forms and the frequency of use. It is not left aside also its opposition aspect with other basic tenses: the past and the present. The review of modal forms of the future tense, through their realization in certain contexts, has revealed an interesting sight of the future tense, but also generally to the category of the verb in the Albanian language. Thus, there is noticed that very often the used verbs in the present tense, represent the future, not as a tense, but as a modality. Looking at this aspect has helped us to see the paradigmatic and syntagmatic importance of the future tense, as well as its submission forms.
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Abordarea coordonării prin joncțiune din perspectivă evolutivă a urmărit să edifice valorile discursive ale conectorilor, în formula completă a tiparelor acestei relații sintactice, și felul în care norma literară a selectat în timp elementele din fiecare subclasă. Au fost preluate informațiile statistice și cele referitoare la distribuția în ariile dialectale din studiile de specialitate recente, lucrarea recurgînd numai la exemplificări diverse, din textele românești ale primelor trei secole, evidențiind astfel continuitatea proceselor. Obiectivul principal al cercetării a fost integrarea în sistemul coordonării a tiparelor pe care cercetarea de pînă acum le-a neglijat în cea mai mare parte, chiar cînd era vorba de limba română actuală. A fost descrisă, de asemenea, (la raportul adversativ) și coordonarea din frazele de tip periodic, concesivă și condițională (aceasta din urmă nesemnalată în limba actuală), ca un fapt de continuitate: latina populară – limba română.
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The approach of coordination by junction in a diachronic perspective aimed at establishing the discursive values of the connectors, in the integrated frame of these syntactic relation patterns, and the manner in which the literary norm selected the elements of each subclass throughout time. This study relies on statistical information and that referring to the dialectal areas distribution collected from recent studies in this field, and provides various examples from the first three centuries of Romanian texts, thus highlighting the continuity of this process. The main objective of the research was the integration in the coordination system of the patterns which the researches have mostly neglected so far, even in the Romanian contemporary language. Concerning the adversative relation, the present research also describes the coordination in periodic complex sentences such as concessive and conditional coordination (the latter unreported in contemporary Romanian) as evidence of spoken Latin – Romanian continuity.
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