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Santrumpos: sandara ir sintaksinė vartosena

Author(s): Ramunė Vaskelaitė / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 84/2011

The paper sets out to examine shortenings in written language, which seems to be gaining importance but so far has hardly been researched. The notion is problematic; it tends to compete and overlap with similar terms, such as abbreviations, alphabetical shortenings, alphabetisms of titles and names, acronyms etc. In the present paper preference is given to shortenings, a largely acknowledged term by Lithuanian linguists. The notion includes three varieties: alphabetical shortenings, syllabic shortenings and mixed shortenings. The choice has been determined by the current usage patterns of shortenings, more precisely, by the tendencies identified in the language of economics.The paper aims at identifying the structure and syntactic patterns of shortenings used in economic reviews published by the National Bank of the Republic of Lithuania. When analysing a large variety of shortenings in present-day Lithuanian and variation in their usage in sentences and longer texts, a number of specific cases have been identified. They are not included in publications dealing with the language norm and should be discussed in reference to the norm. From this point of view, a number of shortenings which seem to be spreading in actual usage have not been given sufficient evaluation yet. They include numbers, words or even symbols; from the structural point of view, they should make a separate category of shortenings. The analysis of alphabetical or syllabic shortenings, the usage of which is mainly regulated by the language norm, has revealed that the issue has become rather problematic due to a rapid spread of nonLithuanian shortenings. The so-called international shortenings, which are fairly difficult to categorise either as purely alphabetical or syllabic shortenings, reopen the discussion of the notions of alphabetical or syllabic shortenings and their boundaries. The above international shortenings also reveal important differences in their functioning in the text. A syntactic approach helps identify two varieties of shortenings: those which tend to be used with other words which grammatically agree with the shortening and those which require explanatory words. The latter type seems to be much closer to symbolic names than to alphabetical shortenings, which are introduced into the text for the purposes of language economy. The paper also discusses a possibility to introduce grammatical markers, which help discriminate between the two varieties of shortenings.

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Vienas prijungiamųjų laiko sakinių su jungtuku kai vartosenos atvejis

Author(s): Rita Miliūnaitė / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 84/2011

The paper analyses a type of subordinate clauses with the conjunction kai, which are not characteristic of Lithuanian. Currently, they tend to appear in texts translated from English (cf. He watched through the window as the sleek little aircraft lifted smoothly off the runway and took to the wide blue-and-white sky above Honolulu).Word order in English, due to its analytical character, is much more fixed than in Lithuanian, which is a synthetic language. Therefore, the word order in an English sentence has limited possibilities to express functional sentence perspective. In English, it first of all expresses grammatical relationships between words rather than the information structure of the sentence.The above syntactic pattern has been adopted from English, which makes ample use of the conjunctions when, while and as rendered in Lithuanian as kai. It consists of the main clause, which expresses background information (rendered by an imperfective verb), and a subordinate clause, which focuses on the main action or activity (rendered by a perfective verb). From the point of view of functional sentence perspective, the theme of a sentence is expressed by the main constituent and the rheme—by the subordinate constituent.Such sentences in actual Lithuanian usage were noticed more than a decade ago, and their number tends to increase. In the publication on usage recommendations Kalbos patarimai (2003) an attempt was made to define such sentences; there was also a proposal made to amend them; however, the data of their actual usage was scarce. After collecting more data, they were analysed from the point of view of the functional sentence perspective. As a result, we can see that Lithuanian tends to express the relationship between an action or activity in the main clause and action or activity in the subordinate clause in a completely different way: the theme is expressed by the subordinate clause with the conjunction kai, and the rheme is expressed by the main clause. An inadequate translation of the clauses of time with the conjunction kai sometimes causes confusion. Therefore, background timing of the action or activity in standard Lithuanian should be expressed in other ways, mainly by participial, half-participial and gerundial adverbial modifiers of time, sometimes by subordinate clauses, where actions or activities in the two clauses go in parallel, are contrasted on an equal basis.

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Rygiškių Jono Lietuvjų kalbos sintaksės pavyzdžiai

Author(s): Vitas Labutis / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 85/2012

The first comprehensive and systemic description of the syntax of the Lithuanian language Lietuvjų kalbos sintaksė (Syntax of the Lithuanian Language) was presented by Jonas Jablonskis under the pseudonym of Rygiškių Jonas as a textbook of a vitally important part of the language at the time when after the lifting of the ban on the Lithuanian press the Lithuanian language was making its way into schools.Jablonskis wrote Lietuvjų kalbos sintaksė in a year. Kazimieras Būga, Juozas Balčikonis and Jurgis Šlapelis helped him to resolve issues related to orthography and terminology. Jablonskis’ Lietuvjų kalbos sintaksė was published in Seinai on the initiative of the priest Juozas Laukaitis in the monthly of religious direction Vadovas in the autumn of 1910. As a separate book it was published in 1911 also in Seinai. In the foreword of the publication Jablonskis pointed out how important for this work were the examples (2900 of them) and introduced their sources. One third of them are examples of the spoken language form various villages, examples from folklore comprise more than a third (over 900) and examples of best language taken from the writings of 19th century (works of Kristijonas Donelaitis, Žemaitė, Motiejus Valančius, Simonas Daukantas and other) make up less than a third.Examples in Lietuvjų kalbos sintaksė are arranged according to the traditional plan of the textbooks of this subject – a sentence, parts of the sentence, types of the sentence, composite sentences and their kinds. For the first time in Lithuanian grammars punctuation marks with the rules of their usage and illustrative sentences were provided. The researched publication helped to bring out and to substantiate the norms of the grammar: first of all it can be seen in the rules set for various matters of syntax and based on convincing examples; in addition various mistakes ingrained in syntactic construction were indicated.The majority of 20th century textbooks of this subject continued the traditions of Jablonskis’ Lietuvjų kalbos sintaksė. Some of the examples (especially from the folklore) were widely used by the authors of textbooks as well as scientific works.

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Sudėtinių prijungiamųjų sakinių norminimo ypatumai ir pažymimųjų sakinių vartosena

Author(s): Rasuolė Vladarskienė / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 85/2012

The article provides an overview of the basis and the criteria of syntax codification as well as the main issues of codification of complex sentences and raises the problem of evaluation of some topical cases of attributive clause usage.In evaluating the conformity of complex sentences with the norm, recommendations about usage of the attributive clauses of purpose, condition, time and concession are given. There are not so many correct usage recommendations regarding subordinate clauses, but some formulations in these recommendations quite often cause discussion and are differently interpreted. Unsettled cases ought to be discussed more thoroughly and commented on so that the proposed norms of syntax would be clear and would not raise doubts for language users.Usage recommendations for attributive clauses are not so easy to define, because they are based on the relation of meaning of the main and the subordinate clauses and such relation can be interpreted differently. The definable meaning is the main criterion of evaluation of conformity with the norm, the criterion of the sequence of actions is subsidiary, though most often both of these features are common in incorrect usage. Recommendations about such sentences wouldbe clearer if the cases of incorrect usage were more precisely defined (for instance description of duties or functions).

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Perkurtos frazeologijos žaismas žiniasklaidoje

Author(s): Regina Koženiauskienė / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 86/2013

The recreation of phraseology in the media relies on both the change of conventional and well-established lexis as well as syntactic order. First of all, phraseology itself is figure-based; stylistically, the figures around it are none the less important. The article shows how syntactic destructive figures help to highlight the meaning, implication and reasons of recreation of phraseology.As a result of the playful combination of recreated phraseology and destructive figures in the text, rhetorical functions of attraction of attention, intriguing, satire based irony and parody become especially strong. In combination with phraseology, destructive figures, which simultaneously comment on it, help to explain and understand the recreation of traditional phraseology and to highlight the turn of thought. The effect of the figures themselves increases when they intertwine among themselves, support one another and go together with phraseology.It has been proven that irrespective of the place of phraseology in the syntactic structure, it first of all combines with parcellation and other accompanying destructive figures – hyperbaton, accumulation, parenthesis, adjunction, ellipsis. The domination of parcellation and other destructive figures is seen in a number of publicistic texts of the journalism of evaluative type of recent years.The phraseology of the beginning, centre and end can be distinguished by the place of the paragraph content structure in which the rephrased text is located. The wittily recreated phraseology positioned in the beginning immediately draws the addressee’s attention and makes an unexpected intriguing impression. Central phraseology, framed by destructive figures, becomes the culmination of the paragraph. The phraseology positioned at the end creates an impression of a strong logical highlight and a vividly formulated final conclusion.The growth in the number of recreated phrases conflicting with conventional phraseology and the accompanying destructive figures can be associated with the confusion in social, economic, political and cultural life as well as the increased competition within the media.Critically and ironically-minded authors with a negative and especially hyperbolic evaluation of topical life affairs, witty and ingenuous parody as well as brave destruction of the old try to attract the addressee and to grip his/her attention by any means possible.

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Se-pronomini muodollisena subjektina suomenoppijoiden teksteissä

Author(s): Hanna Jokela / Language(s): Finnish Issue: 27/2017

This article focuses on formal subjects in Finnish as a foreign language learners’ texts. My aim is to study sentences, which in Finnish are subjectless, or have a non-typical subject. The prototypical subject in Finnish is in the nominative, agrees with the predicate, and is in preverbal position. In Finnish, however, there are plenty of subjectless constructions and clause types, for example, different expressions of weather and state. In Finnish, formal subjects are not part of these constructions. Tere are also non-typical subjects, such as clausal and infinitival subjects, or partitive subjects in existential clauses. Unlikein many Indoeuropean languages, in standard Finnish, there are no formal subjects (also known as expletives), which are non-referential, “semantically empty”, and formally fulfill the role of subject. Based on my earlier teaching experiences and this study, learners of Finnish tend to add a formal subject, an additional and unnecessary subject, in clauses which in Finnish actually are naturally subjectless, or have a subject which is not a prototypical nominative subject. Multifunctional, diverse and familiar pronoun se is applied by learners in case they have decided to add an additional subject argument.My data comes from International Corpus of Learner Finnish (ICLFI). The majority, 61 %, of formal subject clauses in my data are produced by learners on language skill level B1 or B2. My aim is to provide an overview on additional formal se-subject in learners’ written Finnish. Formal subjects are known in many languages, whereas in Finnish there is a variety of subjectless constructions. This phenomenon is interesting from a point of view of Finnish syntax, and learners’ language.

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PROSTORNE OPOZICIJE

Author(s): Ivo Pranjković / Language(s): Croatian Issue: 1/2016

This paper focuses on the fact that many spatial meanings in language are structured on the principle of binary oppositions. This occurs to such an extent that they resemble networks of oppositions usually used to reflect distinctive features in phonology. These spatial oppositions are especially prominent in linguistic units that involve the use of prepositions. The most frequent oppositions of this type are: pre-locativity and post-locativity (ispred kuće/iza kuće); supra-locativity/sub-locativity (nad stolom/pod stolom); intra-locativity/ extra-locativity (u kuću/iz kuće); and ad-locativity/ultra-locativity (blizu škole/daleko od škole). Additionally, some spatial relations within the framework of wider spatial meanings are structured on the principle of opposition. Thus, for example, the opposition beginning/end is a characteristic of the meaning of extremal locativity (na početku ulice/na kraju ulice), and the opposition left/right is a characteristic of the meaning of lateral locativity (lijevo od ulaza/desno od ulaza). Finally, it will be pointed out that some general spatial meanings are also structured on the principle of opposition, especially the opposition locativity/directivity (u gradu/u grad).

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INFINITIVNA REČENICA U FRANCUSKOM JEZIKU - ILI INFINITIV U KONSTRUKCIJI S VLASTITIM SUBJEKTOM VS. INFINITIV BEZ VLASTITOG SUBJEKTA

Author(s): Lejla Tekešinović / Language(s): Bosnian Issue: 1/2016

This paper discusses different structures of the clause known in French grammars as “the infinitive clause”. It addresses various forms of this structure in which the infinitive possesses its own subject, as opposed to that in which the subject of the infinitive and the main verb remains the same. The first part of the paper introduces the main features of the infinitive used without its own subject, while the second presents and analyzes different types of the infinitive clause. Special attention is given to equivalent structures in Bosnian.

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TEORIJE O VRSTAMA RIJEČI U NAŠIM GRAMATIKAMA

Author(s): Rajka Glušica / Language(s): Bosnian,Croatian,Serbian Issue: 1/2012

The paper deals with one of the most interesting problems and the most frequently asked questions related to the classification of the words. The linguistic researches require a steady review of the methodological procedures and criteria applicable to the division of the types of words and definitions of certain parts of speech. The science of language has been familiar with various theories related to all kinds of words, as well as many critics of the theory and partial grammar approaches. The words belong to the linguistic categories which are classified according to the morphological (a division according to the morphological structure) syntactic (the one related to the function it has in the sentence) and semantic criteria in certain classes of property or bind the same meaning. The subject of the paper is to reveal the way our grammarians have classified the types of words and by what criteria. The author has examined the most representative grammar books of the 19th, 20th and 21st century trying to provide an analysis of the development of theoretical thought about the types of words in Montenegrin.

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Konstrukcje z predykatami percepcji w języku słowackim i ich ekwiwalenty w języku polskim

Author(s): Maria Papierz / Language(s): Polish Issue: 52/2017

Constructions with predicates of perception in Slovak and theirs equivalents in Polish

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Predication in the syntax of hyperraising and copy raising

Author(s): Marcel den Dikken / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2017

This paper presents arguments to remove the NP-movement component from hyperraising and copy raising constructions, and to unite these constructions with an analysis in which a complex predicate is created which is predicated directly of the subject of the matrix clause. The analysis at the same time affirms the versatility of the predication relation in syntax and eliminates the need to facilitate NP-movement of the nominative subject of a finite clause across a CP-boundary.

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On the syntactic category - of Akan compounds A product-oriented perspective

Author(s): Clement Kwamina Insaidoo Appah / Language(s): English Issue: 4/2015

In accounting for the properties of morphological constructions, one may adopt a source-oriented view where every property of the whole emanates from the parts or a product-oriented view where the whole may have properties that do not come from the parts. Such properties are called holistic constructional properties. Studies on Akan compounds have been invariably source-oriented, assuming that every property in a compound, including the syntactic category, has to come from its constituents. I show that compounding in Akan is blind to the syntactic category of the constituents. Thus, notwithstanding the syntactic category of the constituents the Akan compound is invariably nominal. This paper, therefore, provides evidence of holistic properties of morphological constructions in the form of the syntactic category of Akan compounds. I also present a Construction Morphology modelling of the syntactic category of the Akan compound as a holistic constructional property which is inherited from a constructional meta-schema that is pre-specified to be nominal. Finally, I posit and exemplify four schemas which inherit the category N from the meta-schema but differ in terms of the presence and position of a head constituent.

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Location and locatum verbs revisited: Evidence from aspect and quantification

Author(s): Víctor Acedo-Matellán,Cristina Real-Puigdollers / Language(s): English Issue: 2/2015

In this paper we claim that location and locatum verbs are grammatically different, contrary to some recent analyses (Mateu 2001; 2008; Harley 2005). While aspectual tests are known to distinguish both classes, we adduce new evidence from degree quantification tests pointing in the same direction. In particular, location verbs seem to be change-of-state verbs, and locatum verbs behave rather like degree achievements and unergative verbs of variable telicity. We claim that these differences must be accounted for in the syntactic representation of locative verbs. While location verbs involve an abstract bounded path, articulated through the combination of a Path preposition and a Place preposition, locatum verbs involve an abstract predicative preposition that allows for degree quantification of the root and contextually determined (a)telicity.

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THE SYNTAX OF ‘-cā’ (*-k w e) IN AHUNAVAITI GĀTHĀ

Author(s): Fabio Massimo D’Amato / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2015

This paper seeks to provide a full description of the syntactic behaviour of the enclitic co-ordinate conjunction -cā in the earliest stage of the Avestan language. By studying the occurrences of the particle in Ahunavaiti Gāthā, a distributive analysis is provided together with an interpretative hypothesis of its distributive dynamics. Two syntactic levels, phrase and sentence, are taken into consideration. Finally, a syntactic domain-based variation is argued and two clitic functional variants are identified as synchronically operating conjunction strategies.

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Еволюція поняття «подвійний синтаксичний зв’язок» в українському мовознавстві

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Еволюція поняття «подвійний синтаксичний зв’язок» в українському мовознавстві

Author(s): Natalia V. Kobchenko / Language(s): Russian Issue: 2/2016

One of the topical problems of modern grammar is the qualification of double syntactic connection. Its nature conforms to none of the features of syntactic connection on the axis of closeness /openness. The problem of the particularity of this syntactic phenomenon appeared in the early twentieth century but it is still not resolved. The purpose of this paper is to clarify the conditions for the birth of the idea of double-syntactic connection and to review the evolution of this phenomenon in Ukrainian and Russian scholarly works. As the analysis demonstrates, the double-syntactic connection does not determine a single phenomenon but it includes a set of phenomena. It is a type that combines different varieties of syntactic connection according to their common features, such as three-member-construction and the complex realization of the syntactic connection. Various linguists have interpreted the patterns of the establishment of that phenomenon and the forms of its realization in different ways. The prospective of our study is to define grammatical markers of the double-syntactic connection and to describe the structure of the constructions in which it appears.

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On The Formation of Mandarin VdeO Focus Clefts

Author(s): Hai-Ping Long / Language(s): English Issue: 4/2013

In this paper we argue that Mandarin VdeO focus clefts (e.g., Ta¯ shì zuò huo˘ che¯ qù de Běij¯ıng ‘It was by train that he went to Beijing’ and Shì ta¯ zuò huo˘ che¯ qù de Běij¯ıng ‘It was he who went to Beijing by train’) originate from bi-clausal copulative constructions in Early Modern Chinese with the interaction between particular word order (SVO order, but the relative clause before the head noun) and the adjacency effect commonly observed in the focus clefts of SVO languages. The adjacency effect is locally constrained by the presupposition effect of the particular relative clause to produce a special head-noun focus cleft in Mandarin (Ta¯ shì qù de Běij¯ıng ‘It was Beijing that he went to’). The past time meaning, the negation restriction, and the TAM (tense, aspect, and modality) restrictions that Mandarin VdeO focus clefts exhibit all come from the syntactic requirement that O in a Mandarin VdeO focus cleft should be specific in reference.

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Before Strikes Back - An *ABA Constraint on Temporal Expressions

Author(s): Ludovico Franco / Language(s): English Issue: 3/2013

In this paper, I will present a cross-linguistic analysis of the syntax of items signalling temporal distance. Based on insight from cartography and nanosyntax, I will argue that the mechanism of Phrasal Spell-out (and the Superset Principle) can elegantly explain why in many language ‘before’ and ‘ago’ meanings are expressed with the same word. I will present a previously unnoticed *ABA constraint (cf. Caha 2009; Bobaljik 2012) on lexical spans in the domain of temporal distance. The *ABA pattern will be crucial to account for possible counterexamples of Haspelmath’s (1997) fairly robust descriptive generalization, which states that forms expressing spatial relations of ‘front’ and ‘back’ regularly express anteriority and posteriority respectively, across languages when they are “shifted” from space to time (namely, before ≈ in front; after ≈ back).

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The Hungarian imperative particle hadd. A contrastive look at the development of analogous markers of sentence mood in some European languages

Author(s): Attila Péteri / Language(s): English Issue: 4/2012

This study is devoted to the Hungarian sentence mood particle hadd, which developed into a particle from the imperatival form of the verb hagy ‘let’. It primarily functions in non-addressee-oriented directives, i.e., it marks speech acts meant by the speaker to instigate actions of the speaker him- or herself or of third parties rather than actions of the interlocutor. The interlocutor is meant to play a—mediating, supporting, or tolerating—“secondary” role in this. Based on corpus research, the syntax and pragmatics of the particle hadd will be illustrated. The syntactic position of hadd differs from that of modal particles in being considerably more fixed. Concerning its pragmatic function, uses leading away from the function of a particle indicating sentence mood can be discerned. Similar developments can be illustrated for other European languages. In some languages (e.g., the Slavic languages), the word meaning ‘let’ develops into a particle, in other languages it turns into an auxiliary verb.

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An outline of an asymmetric two-component theory of aspect

Author(s): Boglárka Németh / Language(s): English Issue: 3/2012

The paper presents the bases of an asymmetric two-component model of aspect. The main theoretical conclusion of the study is that (grammatical) viewpoint aspect and situation aspect are not independent aspectual levels, since the former often modifies the input situation aspect of the phrase/sentence. As it is shown, besides the arguments and adjuncts of the predicate, viewpoint aspect is also an important factor in compositionally marking situation aspect. The aspectual framework put forward in the paper is verified and illustrated on the basis of the aspectual system of Hungarian and some examples taken from English linguistic data.

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On the syntax of ditransitive sentences in Slovenian

Author(s): Tatjana Marvin,Adrian Stegovec / Language(s): English Issue: 1-2/2012

In this paper we discuss Slovenian ditransitive sentences with respect to the two possible word orders of the objects found with neutral intonation, DAT≫ACC and ACC≫DAT. We follow the idea in the Gračanin-Yuksek (2006) paper on Croatian that these two word orders instantiate different structures. In Slovenian, the DAT≫ACC order has an applicative structure (either high or low), while the ACC≫DAT is a prepositional dative construction. The applicative analysis provides a novel argument for this type of analysis. Other supporting arguments examined are scope properties, binding of possessives, the possibility of the causative reading, non-contrastive focus and heavy NP shift, and properties of idioms.

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