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The article attempts to present the Russia’s devastating impact on critical infrastructure during the hybrid war in Ukraine. In order to present a broader context regarding the process, a timeline of the Ukraine-Russia war is presented, starting with the seizure of Crimea, the separation of Donbass, the beginning of the invasion and the Kiev phase, the positional war, and ending with the Kharkiv and Kherson counter-offensives. It goes on to analyse the targets and magnitude of Russian attacks on critical infrastructure, including such as medical and energy infrastructure. Authors point out that many times the overriding aim is to make life difficult for the civilian community, presumably to trigger signs of discontent and opposition to the Ukrainian authorities. The article also identifies the risks in the area of destruction of critical infrastructure in possible future conflicts and points to the need to take measures to strengthen the resilience of societies and states enabling their undisturbed functioning.
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Over the past decade, Western European countries have experienced a surge in Islamist and right-wing terrorism. The terrorist attacks have made the European community aware of the scale of the terrorist threat. The increase in the number of terrorist attacks is due, among other things, to the increasing radicalization, which in effect, in many cases, leads to terrorist activity. Confirmation of the negative effects of increasing radicalization in Western European countries, was a surprisingly large number of young people (men and women) who joined the so-called Islamic State in Syria and Iraq. Therefore, individual countries are implementing their strategies to combat radicalism and extremism, and taking measures aimed at deradicalization of already radicalized people. The main purpose of the article is to analyze the measures taken to counter radicalization and an attempt to assess their effectiveness, based on the example of selected Western European countries.
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The purpose of this article is to discuss the impact of the so-called the “migration crisis” on the Polish-Belarusian border in the second half of 2021 on the security of Poland. The text describes the attitude of Poland, Lithuania and Latvia to these events, the humanitarian crisis on the border and the attitude of the Polish authorities towards this situation, as well as the disinformation carried out against Poland and the Baltic states by the Belarusian regime, with the support of the Russian authorities. Conclusions: 1. The Belarusian migration pressure was a hybrid aggression aimed at weakening the eastern flank of the European Union and NATO. 2. Belarusian actions led to a huge humanitarian crisis, violations of human rights by the Belarusian services, as well as by the attacked countries, which, while defending their borders, acted under strong psychological and emotional pressure. 3. The introduction of the state of emergency in order to protect the border and secure the activities of the services was appropriate, but it made it much more difficult to provide help by volunteers and communicate reliable information from the area of operations.
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Despite the numerous threats of natural disasters, it was organized crime that raised the most concerns about the stability and functioning of the Japanese state and the security of its citizens. An indigenous variety of organized crime, the yakuza, developed in Japan. As a result of the process of fighting the yakuza groups, they were significantly reduced in number and deprived of their sources of income. However, effective measures against the yakuza had the side effect of giving rise to new organized crime groups, much more dangerous to public order, known as hangure, which began to take a place of the liquidated yakuza. The article attempts to answer the question: will the yakuza completely disappear from public space and its place be taken by hangure groups, and what impact will this have on the level of internal security in Japan.
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The proclamation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923 initiated the process of building the specific position of the Turkish military in the political system of the state. For decades, the military did not perform a subservient function to the state, as implied by the democratic model of civilian control over the military, but conversely exercised guardianship over the political class. As a result, the generals in Turkey’s modern history have staged four successful military coups, each followed by taking control of the state administration and establishing military regimes. Extremely significant from a historical and political perspective was the military putsch carried out in 1980, the consequences of which are still visible today. The depiction and analysis of this event is the main purpose of the article, and although the time frame could be narrowed to the years 1973–1983, the author also refers to a broader historical perspective to demonstrate the causes and consequences of the events described.
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The goal of this paper is to analyze the logistic preparation of entities participating in humanitarian aid activities. The theoretical part looks at the importance of logistics in humanitarian aid. The empirical part of the paper consists of research with entities that participate in humanitarian aid activities in Poland. The research was conducted by means of a diagnostic poll method with the application of a survey techniques called Paper and Pencil Interview, and Computer-Assisted Personal Interview. The research was carried out in 2021. The organizations that took part in the research positively assess their state of logistic preparation for providing humanitarian aid. It turns out that the surveyed organizations employ specialists responsible for logistics and usually those specialists hold managerial positions. The research shows that it is worth paying attention to the proper distribution of relief items, because it happens that relief items are incompatible with the needs of the victims.
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The article indicates conditions for the implementation of IT projects supporting management, which are important from the point of view of project security. Attention was paid to such important elements as: the reference character of the offered IT solutions, the stability of the project’s implementation environment, motivational aspects in the project and responsibility, as well as change management tools. The author indicates the need to analyze the planned IT projects in terms of their implementation conditions in order to reliably assess the risks. The article was written based on a study of the literature on the subject and the Author’s practical experience in the subject area.
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When starting his professional career, a young graduate counts on a salary that will guarantee him financial security. According to the modern theory of measuring human capital and fair remuneration, fair remuneration constitutes 8% of the value of an employee’s human capital per year. The aim of the study is to present fair remuneration as one of the factors shaping the social security of a young employee. The results of own research on the expectations of bachelor’s degree students according to salary which gives a sense of security are presented. 123 students participated in the study. The results obtained confirmed that the expected fair remuneration for a young employee is an amount that constitutes an average of 8.40% of the value of his human capital.
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The Russian invasion of Ukraine convinced the Polish government that permanent mobilizationf Polish people in the state defence is an absolute necessity. The third sector organizations play an invaluable role in this respect, and they have become an essential partner of the country’s defence system as far as their effort to organize suitable educational courses and improvement in upgrading pro-defensive abilities of Polish people are concerned. The article presents legal acts enabling the third sector to act effectively in the field of the state defence, a short overview of the articles concerning the subject as well as the results of the project conducted by the „PASSA” Association of Professional Activity in Kielce. The project was carried out within the competition announced by the Polish Ministry of Defence: „A State Defence and Activity of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland: You too can serve your homeland”. The analysis of the subject literature as well as the presented case study justify the conclusion that the third sector organizations can effectively support the government in its effort to improve the state defence system.
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Although the Geneva Conventions were adopted in 1949, humanity has experienced an alarming number of armed conflicts on almost all continents. During that period, the four adopted Geneva Conventions as well as the Additional Protocols from 1977 provide legal protection for persons who do not participate or who have stopped directly participating in hostilities (civilians, wounded, sick, etc.). But despite the legal protection provided in this way, we have witnessed in the last two armed conflicts in Ukraine and Palestine that there are numerous violations of such agreements that resulted in suffering and numerous human losses that could have been avoided if the principles of international humanitarian law were respected. What also prevails as an opinion when international regulation is observed is that infringements of international rules and principles of action do not result from their inadequacy or because they are inappropriate but from the lack of will, insufficient means to ensure their application, ambiguities regarding their application in certain circumstances, as well as the lack of awareness of the necessary need for their application among political leaders, military commanders and the wider public. The previously stated often applies also to other areas of the regulation of international relations, but the difference in relation of failure to comply with the legal regulation in these areas (for example international business law) and failure to comply with international military and humanitarian law is paid with human lives and suffering. What are the most common violations of international humanitarian law and what consequences do such violations cause is the purpose of the research presented in this paper, but also providing answers and recommendations on how to "force" states even in military conflicts to respect and protect basic human rights of civilians. This will also help in a creation of usable knowledge and values that should be respected and practiced in every single military conflict. In the part of the methodology, the paper was prepared based on an extensive analysis of the basic rules and principles of international humanitarian law and how they are respected in the latest military conflicts that have engulfed the world. Through the research, one of the findings that is defined is that the implementation of the principles of the international humanitarian law countries often refer to ratification, so on the one hand, for example, the Geneva Conventions are universally accepted by all countries, but the same cannot be said for Additional Protocols, so they, by not acceding to ratification, the states consider that they have no legal obligation to implement them. Also, one of the insights or conclusions to which the paper refers is that international humanitarian law still contains customary rules that should be respected in any conflict, and which are based on the principle of protection of basic human rights and freedoms and which in any case should be respected and applied regardless of whether the states are in military conflicts or are in peace, especially today in the 21st century regarding the level of development of international relations. Strengthening the role of the International Criminal Court in the direction of creating an international practice that will prevent violations of international humanitarian and military law and the creation of new crimes against humanity is also one of the recommendations that should strengthen the system of application of the principles and the rules of international regulations in military conflicts.
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Commentary on case law discusses a recent decision by the Czech Constitutional Court regarding noise protection regulations. A group of 23 senators challenged amendments to government regulation No. 433/2022, which increased noise limits from road and rail transport in protected outdoor areas. The senators argued that the amendments were chaotic, unbalanced, and unpredictable, potentially leading to significant increases in permissible noise levels. The Constitutional Court partially rejected and partially dismissed the proposal, stating that the amendments did not violate the law. The Court emphasized that setting noise limits is within the government's competence and that reducing protection levels is not inherently unconstitutional. The decision also referenced previous rulings and international standards, noting that neither the World Health Organization nor the European Union mandates specific noise limits. The Court concluded that balancing public health protection with societal needs is essential, and the increased noise limits do not breach constitutional mandates.
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The Polish constitutional drafts from the 1990s were one of the source texts of the 1997 Constitution of the Republic of Poland. Some of them tried very hard to refer to the solutions of the Polish Constitution of 1921. The article carried out an analysis to what extent the individual constitutional drafts referred to the solutions of the 1921 Constitution. The analysis of constitutional drafts and their similarities to the solutions of the 1921 Constitution were carried out on the basis of comparisons regarding, among others, the parliament, the president of Republic of Poland and legislative initiative.
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The research into the preconditions and sources of international labour migration in the era of globalisation (security aspects) is caused, first of all, by the negative trends observed in the reproduction of the population of Europe, in particular,a decrease in the demographic potential of families, a drop in the birth rate, an increase in morbidity, and a decrease in theaverage life expectancy, which lead to deformation of the age structure of the population. In contrast to the mentioned factors of development of human potential, positive measures that will have a long-term nature of action and will not immediately produce the desired results of regulating the labour migration of the population as a significant component of the overall increase of the population and a factor of renewal of its potential can have a much faster effect. For modern Europe, the question of the impact of labour migration on the development of the state’s economy has been quite relevant for a long time, because the processes of labour migration, which have their own characteristics during the period of economic transformation, are an important component of the social policy of each state. Recently, the nature, volume, composition and direction of internal andexternal labour migration flows in connection with the transformation of socio-economic relations, the democratisation of publiclife, the simplification of the procedures for going abroad and changing the place of residence, the economic crisis and the dropin the standard of living of the population have been significant changes and acquired a new meaning. They were reflected, first of all, in the reduction of the intensity of labour migration within individual states and at the interstate level, a significant outflow of the population, and the formation of powerful and constant flows of external labour migration. This and a number of othe rcircumstances dictate the need for a more detailed study of the research of the preconditions and sources of international labour migration in the era of globalisation (security aspects), which will make it possible to build an appropriate model of migration regulation in general, which, in turn, will contribute to the development of the economy of European states.
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The former European Union Civil Service Tribunal admitted the existence of non-material damage that is separable from the unlawfulness that is the basis for the annulment of a contested decision and which cannot be entirely repaired by that annulment. So, the frustration of being forced to bring an action, on the one hand, and a state of serious uncertainty and concern (anxiety), on the other hand, may constitute actual harm suffered giving rise to the claim for moral damages, as long as the illegality of the wrongful act and the existence of a causal link between the act and the damage suffered are also proved. The Romanian courts awarded moral damages for the infringement of the right of access provided by Regulation (EU) 2016/679 to compensate the feeling of injustice and the anxiety caused by the fact that a person had to conduct a pre-litigation procedure and then a litigation procedure in order to have his rights recognised. This paper argues that the data subjects should demand and the courts should award non-material damages not only for the frustration of being forced to bring actions to defend their right to the protection of personal data, but also for the serious state of uncertainty and concern that can be generated by the loss of control over their own personal data when the controller disregards the right of access of the data subject, right designed to allow the latter to be aware of, and verify, the lawfulness of the processing.
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In order to ensure coherent governance, any responsible government proposes a series of measures to be implemented throughout its term of office. These measures are contained in the governance programme that it presents at the time of the government’s investiture. This governance programme is extremely important because it sets out the objectives of the government and is an important document on the basis of which the government is sworn in.
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The study deals with an important Slovak lawyer, university lecturer and writer Anton Vavrinec Ottmayer who lived and worked in the capital of the Hungarian Kingdom for the first two thirds of the 19th century. The paper deals mainly with the lesser-known aspects of his career, in particular his scientific career within the Faculty of Law, where he was Dean for two years (1832–1834). He lectured on statistics, mining law and also published on the law of substitution. His literary works were written in Slovak, his professional legal works in Latin and German. In addition, he worked as an attorney and agent (lawyer) at the military court. In 1849 he was accused of insulting the majesty by the Austrian authorities, he was convicted and spent one year in prison. This put an end to his previous university career and he therefore started his own business. His aim was to build a waterworks in Pest. His activities were not always successful, he lost his house at auction and tax lawsuits were also brought against him. To this day, it is not entirely clear exactly when he died. Ottmayer’s life well documents the developments of Hungarian capital, the existential dilemmas, professional and political challenges for lawyers at the time. It also documents the university world and the professional issues that resonated in the professional press of the first half of the 19th century.
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The abuse of Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution during the late presidency of Hindenburg has been criticized in many previous studies as one of the key factors of the collapse of the Weimar Republic that led to the establishment of the Third Reich, resulting from the lack of understanding of the parliamentary democracy. Whereas those criticisms have arisen primarily from the analysis of the consequences, this paper analyzes the issue of the executed presidential emergency powers with an integrative approach by comparing the arguments by Preuß, the drafter of Article 48, and Schmitt, taking into account the perspectives of members of the constitutional assembly as well as their contemporaneous intellectuals. While Preuß and Schmitt may appear generally contrastive in their beliefs and theories, some implicit logical agreements are observed, such as those on their interpretations of the relation between the first and the second sentences in Article 48, paragraph 2, and their thoughts regarding the handling of the law of the Reich that should be in Article 48, paragraph 5. With the findings of their commonalities and others in their theories, this paper attempts to contribute to refining the current systems of law and democracy for emergency situations in various contexts.
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The aim of the article is to present deeds relating to the foundation of the Altar of the Holy Cross in the cathedral church in Litomyšl. The main source on the topic is an original deed issued by Šimon of Prague, vicar general and officialis of the Bishopric of Litomyšl, dated 27 November 1417, written by the public notary Havel Duchek of Lysá. The document is deposited in the State District Archives in Svitavy, seated in Litomyšl, under inventory number 34. In 1397, Jan, called Mladeč of Branná, bequeathed the sum of one hundred schock of groschen to the cathedral church in Litomyšl for the foundation of a new altar for the salvation of his soul. He was already ill by this time. On 16 June 1402, Bishop of Litomyšl Jan IV. Železný issued a deed which created a new altar benefice in the cathedral church in Litomyšl. Jan Mladeč had already passed away. The executors of his last will were Bishop of Litomyšl Jan IV. Železný and Petr and Přibík, brothers of Hrochův Týnec, otherwise from Chroustovice. This follows from a joint deed issued by all three on 18 April 1405. The conditions to be met by the holder of the altar benefice were laid down therein. He was to perform his duties personally or through another suitable priest, and a statement is made on precisely how many masses were to be celebrated during the week. The study is accompanied by an edition of four deeds relating to the foundation of the altar: a deed of 16 June 1402, a deed of 18 April 1405, a notarial copy of both deeds drawn up on 16 May [1405, 1406 or 1408], and a notarial copy of the latter deed drawn up on 27 November 1417.
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