Loca scribendi: geneza pojęcia, definicje i granice użyteczności

Author(s): Anna Adamska / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

Meant to sketch the methodological frame of the volume, this article discusses varieties of spatial approaches to pre-modern written culture, developed independently in medieval history in many scholarly traditions, separated by the languages in which they publish. Concepts such as “cultural landscape”, “scribal region” or “documentary territory” have their origin in 19th century German scholarly discourse, in which they were known as Kulturlandschaft, Schriftprovinz, and Urkundenlandschaft. The detailed analysis of attempts to prove their usefulness for modern scholarship shows marked similarities with the spatial concepts used in French cultural history, with lieux (places) as the key term. The idea of lieux de savoir (places of knowledge), with among them lieux d’écriture (places of writing), has been developed from 2007 onwards by Christian Jacob. Although this French scholar perceived as pre-modern lieux d’écriture only places of ‘re-production’ of written texts (workshops of copyists and printing houses), his appeal to elaborate the ‘map’ of such places nevertheless inspired the main idea of the volume: to draw the map of the centres of written culture in the pre-modern Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Important changes in the paradigm of research on medieval literacy and communication from the 1990s onwards, however, urge us to define anew the concept of lieux d’écriture (or rather that of loca scribendi, better suited to the Polish scholarly tradition). The term here signifies not only copyists’ ateliers and printing houses, but all institutional and private places of the creation of various types of texts (belonging to the various segments of literate behaviour), be they the scribal offices of the municipalities and of the State’s administration, monastic houses, parishes, episcopal chanceries, schools, and even private homes. This all-embracing definition of loca scribendi results in the requirement to abandon the traditional division between the ‘medieval’ and ‘early modern’ periods. Drawing the map of places where written texts were created in the territory of the multiethnic and multilingual Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, within its chronological boundaries of 1385 and 1795, provides a chance to investigate the continuous existence of some and the ephemeral character of other loca, as well as the fluidity of the “centres” and “peripheries” of written culture.

Uwarunkowania początków rozwoju polskich kancelarii miejskich. Przykład Krakowa (do 1312 r.)

Author(s): Piotr Okniński / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The subject of the origins of urban chanceries in medieval Poland is discussed using the example of sources from Cracow dating from before 1312. An early stage in the development of Cracow municipal chancery is put into context of the formation of urban self-governance and transformations of legal and written culture in the Polish lands. This chancery had early origins, going back to the 13th century, to the period of the city’s locatio. Its gradual formation is shown by the introduction of the municipal seal (c. 1283), the employment of the first municipal scribe (the earliest evidence dating from 1288–1290), by the growing numbers of urban charters (the earliest dating maybe already from 1288–1290), and, finally, by the introduction of the book of records (c. 1300). The growing political autonomy of the institutions of urban self-governance in a period of political turbulence (between the death of Duke Boleslas the Bashful in 1279 and the suppression of the urban revolt of mayor Albert in 1312), has been singled out as the main factor stimulating the development of the chancery. The growth in importance of the municipal scribal office was also a result of the vivid contacts of the city and its inhabitants with the monasteries from the area and with the court of Jan Muskata, Bishop of Cracow, which was a centre of pragmatic literacy. An acceleration of the chancery’s development is clearly visible in the period 1290–1306, when Cracow was under the control of the Bohemian kings from the Přemyslid dynasty. The intensive socio-institutional transformation of the city led to the urban revolt against the Duke Wladislas the Short.

Warszawskie loca scribendi w drugiej połowie XV w.

Author(s): Agnieszka Bartoszewicz / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The article discusses places of production of written records in two late medieval municipalities of Warsaw (Old and New Warsaw) which influenced the literate behaviour of their inhabitants in the domain of pragmatic literacy. A number of scribal offices were active in Warsaw, attached to various institutions but unequally developed. Distinct loca scribendi worked for the municipalities of Old and New Warsaw, for the court of the Mazovian princes, and for the institutions of the Church. The places of production of records situated in New Warsaw were typical for a small town: there were simple urban offices and the parish church with its school. Development of written culture here most probably was stimulated by the direct vicinity of Old Warsaw, much more advanced in the use of written records. The close contacts between both municipalities were more important in generating the need to use the written word on the part of the inhabitants of New Warsaw than their relations with other agents of practical literacy (e.g. the Church or the rulers’ administration). In Old Warsaw, in chronological order the places on the map of written culture were the municipal offices, the collegiate church (which functioned also as urban parish church), the tribunals of the terrestrial law and the magistrate courts (iudicia castriensia), and the ducal court. The same topography of pragmatic literacy can be seen also in other Polish towns of similar size to Old Warsaw (e.g. Lublin, Przemyśl and Płock). Town dwellers, especially urban officials and members of the financial elite, frequented their loca scribendi on various occasions, although sometimes the reasons for visiting scribal offices are not entirely clear to modern scholars. Among the places where written records were created in Old Warsaw, the municipal chancery played an exceptionally important role. Here, the municipality employed clerks who originated from towns and cities known as important trade partners of Warsaw merchants (e.g. from Silesia, Vilnius and Lublin).

Małomiasteczkowy locus scribendi w późnym średniowieczu. Przykład Radziejowa

Author(s): Katarzyna Warda / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The topic of the article is the organisation of work in the municipal chancery of Radziejów, a very small town in Cuyavia, in the northern part of late medieval Poland. The records of the local bench and the council registers from 1445–1455 were carefully investigated to this end. As creators of the urban locus scribendi, first the municipal officials and scribes should be mentioned. In the short period of ten years investigated here, 26 persons were connected to the council, while 49 others were involved in work for the urban bench. Palaeographical analysis shows that most entries into both series of town books were made by a single person; accidental hands are scarce. The bench and the council of Radziejów employed the same scribe, and maybe even employed a shared chancery. It is impossible, however, to say where such a joint scribal office might have been situated. The quality of the Latin in the records, the way the records were kept, and the correctness of the legal formulary allows us to judge the professional skills of Radziejów scribes favourably. The types of matter recorded in the town books, their number and frequency, shows that most cases recorded in the council’s registers concerned debts. The bench tried more varied legal matters; yet its records register mainly trade in real estate and regulations concerning ownership. Comparison with other towns shows that the contents of the urban books was hardly extraordinary for late medieval Poland. Prosopographical analysis of the chancery’s clients (their gender, social status, dignities, profession, their role in the cases as described in the town books, and the frequency of their appearances before the council and the bench), shows the profile of a typical client of a small town’s locus scribendi. The average client was a male, usually in possession of the citizenship. Most often he appeared before the bench court on his own, arranging simple matters. He did not belong to the local elites but was a ‘normal’ town-dweller. In ten years, in a settlement of c. 1,000 inhabitants, almost 450 persons came in touch with the chancery. Considering that 75 other persons served as councillors or aldermen, we must conclude that the number of people using the municipal scribal office was really large. Although in Radziejów other loca scribendi were active as well (the magistrate, the terrestrial court, a monastery, and the parish church), for town-dwellers the chancery was most important.

Podatki miejskie a księgowość w Głównym Mieście Gdańsku w późnym średniowieczu

Author(s): Marcin Grulkowski / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The article analyses the multistage procedures of tax collection in the Main City of Gdańsk during the 14th and 15th centuries. The complex character of these procedures is illustrated by three examples of urban taxes: the predial rent, the property tax (the so-called szos), and ‘pound duty’. The first two taxes were typical for urban settlements, although the szos was imposed only occasionally (in 1377/1378, 1416 and 1443). The ‘pound duty’ was originally collected for the needs of the Hanse, but later became a local tax. At the turn of the 14th and the 15th century, the Order of the Teutonic Knights took over control of this tax. A by-product of the collection procedures was the complex and vast documentation that was produced in the subsequent stages. Various kinds of tax records, such as primary registers, intermediary notes on wax tablets, lists of debtors, and financial statements, have been analysed.

Miejsca działalności konsystorza generalnego w Poznaniu i jego pisarzy w pierwszej ćwierci XV w.

Author(s): Adam Kozak / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

An important aspect of the organisation of the general consistory court in Poznań in the first quarter of the 15th century is that of the places where the court sessions were held, where the legal actions were performed (e.g. so-called ‘obligations’ and appointing of legal plenipotentiaries), and where the records of the proceedings were made. To establish these places the eight oldest registers of the consistory court (dating from 1404–1425) have been analysed, as well as almost 80 charters issued by the vicarii in spiritualibus and the officials of the bishopric of Poznań. Altogether, these records offer us more than 2,500 notices about the topography of legal actions. It can be shown that the activities mentioned before found place not only in houses on the centrally located island of Ostrów Tumski (belonging to the bishopric of Poznań), where the officials and vicarii in spiritualibus resided. Legal and notarial actions were also performed in the lodgings of notaries, in the curiae of canons, at the episcopal court, in the cathedral, and in St. Mary’s ‘in Summo’ church. Many other places both on Ostrów Tumski (the cathedral school and the houses of eternal vicars) and in other parts of the city can be added to this list. In 1425 the consistory court left Poznań and settled for some time in Dolsk (more than 50 kilometres south of Poznań). Generally, however, the places of the activities of the consistory court became ever more stable over time: the number of cases treated at the curia of the official and the vicar in spiritualibus grew from 77% of all cases presented to the bishop in 1404 to more than 99% in 1424. This change is clearly connected to the more than fourfold growth in litigious cases (the number of so-called obligations was grew twice as fast in this period). Another factor was the reform of the episcopal chancery’s organisation by bishop Andrzej Łaskarz (1414–1426), who was a remarkable intellectual. The loca agendi and loca scribendi of the Poznań consistory court were usually identical. A separate space for the notaries was created in the curia of the officials (and probably also at the office of the vicarii in spiritualibus). This provided the judges with the permanent assistance of chancery clerks.

„Nietypowe” miejsca aktów prawnych rejestrowanych w księgach czynności biskupa poznańskiego Andrzeja Bnińskiego (1438–1479)

Author(s): Paweł Dembiński / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

This article investigates ‘atypical’ places of legal action and of the production of legal records, registered in the Acta episcopalia produced under the rule of Andrzej Bniński, Bishop of Poznań (1438–1479). Three volumes of these acta (altogether 815 folios), embracing almost all of the bishop’s pontificate, have been investigated. Only a minute part of the notes recording legal actions have been edited by modern scholars, and many entries contain substantial omissions. The specific characteristics of the source’s materials are discussed, a.o. the general absence of information about administering the sacraments, the dedication of churches and chapels, etc. Next, the organisation of the episcopal chancery and the government of the diocese is explained. The daily routine of administration consisted of constant tours of the large diocese, which in the 15th century embraced the western frontier areas of the Polish kingdom (i.e. the western part of Greater Poland) and a big enclave in Mazovia. The places are analysed where the bishop (or the notaries working under his authority) used to work. These were halls (called pallacium), large rooms on the first floor of episcopal buildings (sala superior), ‘white chambers’ (stuba alba), ‘large chambers’ (stuba maior), rooms with a chimney (caminata) as well as alcoves (cubiculum) and ‘black chambers’ (stuba nigra). All these places were located in the episcopal residences, and also in monasteries and residences of local nobles who received the bishop on his travels. Episcopal notaries also acted in the chambers of the rectories in villages situated on episcopal estates or in other settlements in which the bishop happened to stay. ‘Atypical’ seem the recordings of the performance of his administrative duties by the bishop (or his officials) which had a public character, or at least occurred in places accessible to everybody. The most clear cases concern situations in which episcopal power had to be manifest, e.g. judging Hussites in church buildings, solemnly confirming pious donations, or introducing someone into ecclesiastical office. Some legal actions were performed in public to gather as large a number of witnesses as possible at court sessions. Large audiences were welcome to avoid accusations of secret (and therefore suspicious) activities. Finally, the practice of making legal actions public might result from the personal preferences of the bishop. In spring and summer, he clearly preferred to receive visitors in the garden, over a meal, and maybe also to entertain his entourage. The sources also mention occasions when the bishop was troubled by petitioners just as he and his cortege were leaving. Episcopal notaries, who had to be permanently on standby and worked around the clock, could also be besieged by petitioners when they were on the move. The choice of the place of legal action might also be influenced by the social status of the petitioners. Although the places of legal actions (loca actandi) were carefully identified in the sources, sometimes it is difficult to establish when exactly the entries in the episcopal registers were made: on the spot, at the place of the legal action, or rather later on, in a quiet room, on the basis of minutes taken earlier.

Dwór królowej jako locus scribendi. Analiza wybranych aspektów funkcjonowania na przykładzie korespondencji Elżbiety Habsburżanki z Zygmuntem Augustem

Author(s): Urszula Zachara-Związek / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

Can the entourage of the 16th century spouses of Polish rulers be defined as a locus scribendi and, if so, what were its main characteristics? The detailed analysis of the correspondence between Elisabeth of Habsburg and her royal consort Sigismund August Jagiellon allows one to answer this question in the affirmative. Only nine letters of the queen have been preserved, including four from the period before 1543, when the young bride came to Poland from Austria and the marriage was concluded. Despite this modest amount, Elisabeth can be shown to be involved in acts of written communication. She manages to give a personal touch to the ‘standard’ letters to her husband, breaking with epistolary conventions.

Protestancka parafia jako miejsce pisma: Rzesza i Rzeczpospolita na przełomie XVI i XVII w.

Author(s): Maciej Ptaszyński / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The article discusses the role of the written word in the life of Protestant clergymen and their parishes, sketching the connection between the Protestant (especially Lutheran) confession and written culture by comparing the daily functioning of parishes in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and in the German lands, especially in the Lutheran principalities of Pomerania. The possessing of vernacular translations of the Bible has been compared, attitudes towards a university culture which expressed the essence of literacy, and the presence of symbols and gestures referring to the written word in the daily life of ministers of the Church. Contrary to ‘official’ declarations, the use of the vernacular Bible was very limited. Nevertheless, devotion to the Gospel can be seen in the area of theological references and values. Written culture, in its humanist and academic dimensions, became part of the professional ethos of Protestant ministers. This paradoxically led to many conflicts with the community of believers.

Lovecké scény

Author(s): Martin Hložek,Markéta Tymonová / Language(s): English,Czech Publication Year: 0

Hunting themes began to be depicted on relief-decorated stoves since the second half of the 15th century, when the tile iconography was enriched with motifs portraying prestigious social activities and individual themes were drawn from the everyday life of privileged social classes. Hunting was an integral part of noble style and a popular entertainment. Together with tournaments and accolades, it created the aristocratic culture. The popularity of hunting is evidenced by genre scenes from the hunting milieu, depicted in the form of woodcuts, illuminations and graphics, or in the form of painted, carved or sculpted decoration in the representative interiors of manorial and ecclesiastical residences and burgher houses. Attractive themes were associated not only with castles and mansions, as we would expect with regard to their tight connection with hunting grounds, but we know them also from towns and monasteries. This fact indicates that hunting was enjoyed not only by the uppermost social classes, namely the ruler and aristocracy, but also by wealthy patricians and clergymen. The spread of the motif among various social milieus, initiated by the effort to imitate the lifestyle of upper classes, increased the demand for this category of luxury goods. And production centres responded to this demand by their updated supply. The tiles with hunting decoration have been part of the manufacturing programme of ceramic workshops for about fifty years. Together with other scenes, they contributed to the adoption of cultural habits of high society.

Търновски принцеси като иноземни владетелки

Author(s): Rumyana Komsalova / Language(s): English,Bulgarian Publication Year: 0

An important medium of diplomacy during the Middle Ages were the dynastic marriages and a number of Princesses of Tarnovo became foreign rulers. Have they faced the dilemma of acting in the interest of their homeland or to support the policies of their ruling spouses and how much did they have the opportunity to participate actively in the power structures?

Цар Иван Александър и развоят на гражданската война във Византия през 1343 – 1344 г.

Author(s): Momchil Mladenov / Language(s): English,Bulgarian Publication Year: 0

The paper presents the key moments of the participation of the Bulgarian state in the Civil war in Byzantium. The author emphasizes the information of the Turkish poet Enveri (15th century). He reports that Bulgaria is part of the sacred alliance organized by the Papacy to fight with emirate of Smirna. Аccording to the author, Tsar Ivan Alexander is part of the Christian coalition. His involvement in Byzantine civil war is a consequence of these diplomatic actions.

Залезът на двете царства – татари и българи през втората половина на XIV век

Author(s): Aleksandar Uzelac / Language(s): English,Bulgarian Publication Year: 0

Enderun-u Hümayûn Muallimlerinden Kolcalı Abdülaziz Bey’in Gözüyle Çin’deki Müslümanlar ve Türkler

Author(s): Zeynel Özlü,Mustafa Murat Çay / Language(s): Turkish Publication Year: 0

Abdulaziz Bey from Kolca was born in 1863 in Ghulja, which is located within the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture in northern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China today. Some studies indicate that he probably settled in Istanbul in 1900. Abdulaziz Bey worked as a writer for the newspapers İkdam and Metin, and worked as an Arabic teacher and administrator in public schools (Enderun). As it is covered within the framework of this study, bringing Turkistani intellectuals/intelligentsia like Abdulaziz Bey to Istanbul or the interest shown in Turkistan, especially in the Chinese regions became a necessity of the Islamist and, in a way, the Turkism policy followed during the reign of Abdulhamid II. The works of Abdulaziz Bey, who contributed to the world of science with extremely important studies, created significant influences in Turkey, especially with studies such as Bir Çin Âlimi Nazarında İstikbal-i Şarkın Yeni Güneşi Gazi Mustafa Kemal Hazretleri and Umum Türklerin ve Bütün İnsaniyetin İttihadı. On the other hand, the actual fame of Abdulaziz Bey stemmed from being effective in the relations with China and his studies and works on the circumstances of Islam in Chinese regions. Within this scope, his works, such as Çin’de Din-i Mübîn-i İslâm ve Çin Müslümanları, proved to be significant contributions in terms of providing information about China and rational criticisms covered by his works. The works published by the Ministry of Education (Maarif Nezaret-i Celîlesi) with the permit dated 22 April 1319 and numbered 109 consisted of 9 sections. The author drew attention to the existence of numerous studies and works on the circumstances of Islam in Chinese regions in the period while stating that the publication in question was written to reveal the realities on the subject due to the incomplete and inaccurate news that emerged in Europe. Abdulaziz Bey analyzed the main reasons for the respect and countenance offered to Islam and Muslims by the Chinese Government, provided information about the general conditions of Turk-Muslim peoples who maintained their lives in these regions, and most notably, revealed the main principles of the reform and correlational movements that could enable the development of the Muslims in the region in terms of science, politics, and social fields. This work of Abdulaziz Bey can be evaluated as a collection of works and studies that were created to inform both the Ottoman community and the Ottoman State officials about the circumstances of Muslims living in China in line with Islamism and Turkism political views.

On cutting off noses and pulling out beards: Face as a medium of crime and punishment in medieval Dubrovnik

Author(s): Nella Lonza / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

In historiography dealing with criminality, much has been written on punishment as a social message communicated in various ways, among other things, by using a convict’s body as a medium (face branding, mutilation, etc.). By analysing the criminal procedures of medieval Dubrovnik and comparative material from Dalmatia and other European communities, the author poses an inverse question and investigates how the offender sometimes used the victim’s body as a medium for conveying his “message”. Hair cropping (and related forced removal of female headgear), pulling out of the beard, and nose amputation may be referred to as “coded crimes” because accent was given to symbolism over the bodily injury and pain. Sharing the same value system, the victim and his social environment could easily “read” the offender’s message from such a crime.

Criminal offenses and violence in medieval Kotor (1326 - 1337)

Author(s): Valentina Živković / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

The topic of the paper is the analysis of the types of criminal offenses mentioned in the earliest preserved judicial notary documents of Kotor (1326 - 1337), and which are defined and sanctioned by the Statute of Kotor. Protection of interests of the community and principles of good administration were the priorities upon which the criminal justice system of Kotor was based. On the other hand, protection of private property was the most common topic because of which civil litigations were initiated.

Fortified Towns of the Babonić Counts in Central and Lower Pounje as Non-Agrarian Settlements (13th-14th Centuries)

Author(s): Hrvoje Kekez / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

From the ancient times, the Una valley (along with that of River Vrbas) was an important traffic and communication route connecting Pannonia and the eastern Adriatic, and it maintained this crucial function throughout the Middle Ages. This favourable geostrategic position led to the foundation of settlements in the Una valley during the medieval period, including the towns of Dubica, Kostajnica, Vodičevo, Zrin, Otoka, Krupa, Ostrožac, and Bihać, which were built at a distance of around 30 kilometres on the average, which was a day of journey for the merchants’ caravans.

Urban Settlements (oppida) of Vinodol under the Rule of the Counts of Krk: Topographical Situation and Local Organization within the Feudal Manor

Author(s): Gordan Ravančić / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

When discussing Vinodol’s past, one must keep in mind the antiquity of this geographic region, which becomes evident at the very first glance – the clear shape of the valley that stretches from Križišće towards the southeast, surrounded in north and south by mountains belonging to the Bitoraj-Viševica massif. At the same time, one should keep in mind that this geographical situation of Vinodol does not entirely correspond to the former Vinodol municipalities or towns. As it is known, the term “Vinodol towns” includes eight municipalities from Trsat in the northwest to Ledenice in the southeast, which together with Novi (Vinodolski) sums up to the nine towns of medieval Vinodol.

Nobility of the Croatian Kingdom between Zadar and Its Hinterland during the Late 14th and Early 15th Centuries

Author(s): Ivan Majnarić / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

In the second half of the 14th century, Zadar became the centre of the Kingdoms of Dalmatia and Croatia. Then, and especially during the first half of the 15th century, it may be best described as a blooming town. The main reason for this situation was a combination of political, social, and economic circumstances, and the market of possibilities was equally open to peasants, craftsmen, merchants, educated administration, and the nobility. The city required personal presence and offered challenges in search for a better future or in establishing or improving one’s reputation. All these opportunities, and especially the last one, played a role in attracting the Croatian nobility, which will be the focus of this article.

Property and Ownership in Dubrovnik's Confraternity of St Anthony in the Late Medieval and Early Modern Ages

Author(s): Zrinka Pešorda Vardić / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

Throughout the centuries of its history, Dubrovnik’s confraternity of St Anthony was one of its most important institutions besides the official authorities and the Church. Established in 1432 by merging two earlier confraternities, that of the Holy Spirit and the Holy Saviour (founded in 1348) and that of St Anthony the First Ab-bot and St Peter (founded probably in 1363), it soon became the most distinguished confraternity in the city. It showed some typical features of a confraternity – focus on the spiritual needs of the brethren, care for the needs of its sick and dying members, offering the feeling of belonging to a community, the possibility of engaging in lay spirituality, and hope in eternal salvation. In the spirit of Christ’s words “Whatever you did for one of the least of these brothers and sisters of mine, you did for me,” con-fraternities were known for their charity work, which was not limited exclusively to its members, but also included the broader community and all people in need, which distinguished them from the exclusively professional guilds, who cared mostly for their own.