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The article concerns the life and work of Tomas Cranmer and shows the process of maturing English Reformation and her complexity under royal leadership. Cranmer has contributed significantly to the reform of the English Church as a professor of the University of Cambridge and the Archbishop of Canterbury. He was very involved in matter the annulment of the marriage of Henry VIII. Over the years, he was climbing the ladder of increasing positions and dignity. He took an active role in discussions about theological differences between the conservatives and the reformers. He disciplined some reformers. He was the author of several books, which are aimed at improving reforms in the country. The largest participation of the Cranmer’s work in the English Reformation was the influence of the creation, edition and shape the Book of Common Prayer. As a part of his reform program he worked on the revision of canon law, a correction formula of the prayer book and formation of doctrine, which were ingrained in the Bible and the patristic thought. He argued about spiritual presence of Christ in the Eucharist. He cooperated with European and English reformers. He was charged with treason, found guilty and sentenced to death.
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The article explains what is hezychia, about which he wrote John Climacus (d. 649), a monk and ascetic writer in Greek. Hezychia means peace and quiet spirit, which sought to gain the ancient anachorites. The article also discusses some of the icons Andrew Rublev (d. 1430), which presented the person expressing such peace of mind. Portrayed by the artist disciples of Jesus and the apostles have bright faces expressing spiritual and physical balance, and the joy of waiting for the judgment of God. Characters have small eyes and mouth, which means that mastered his senses. Their bodies are slimline and delicate, like it came from the spiritual realm. These are people who were divinized as a result of God’s power. However, the conception of Our Lady of Vladimir see that the Mother of God has opened to the grace of God. She has a very gentle face did not express violent emotions, but indicative of the state of contemplation.
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Wallachian and Moldavian coins are among other foreign currencies which circulated in Bulgarian towns in 14-15 cc. The Wallachian coins are rare in Bulgarian territory, except Dobrudja with numerous finds of the Wallachian ruler Mircea I the Old’s coinage. These finds are connected with his military activities aimed at seizure of the Despotism of Dobrudja. Some individual coins are documented in the capital Caliacra (22 items), Varna (14 items), Tyrnovo (6 items), Shumen (5 items), Vetren (2 items), Balchik (2 items), Ovech (1 item), Cherven (1 item). Moldavian emissions are even rarer finds: Varna (9 items), Caliacra (2 items), Shumen (2 items), Fisek (1 item), Sini vir (Shumen reg., 1 item), Ovech (1 item).Unlike individual finds, collective monetary finds reflect the nature of monetary circulation and wealth of the urban population. Half of the hoards yield decorations along with the money. Besides homogenous assemblages in Vardun (Tyrgovishte reg.), Tyrnovo and Caliacra І, the number of Wallachian coins in hoards, as a rule, is not big. Concentration of such hoards close to the Danube points to trade contacts between population of both banks of the river. Almost all collective finds with Wallachian coins are dated by the late 14 c. – the time of the Ottoman conquest of Bulgarian lands.
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Galitian Rus’ in 14 c. had a well-functioning monetary system. The Lvov mints in 1353-1394 while emitting silver groszes always followed the same proportions of pure silver contents (2:1) to the Prague grosz. In 1353 – 1382 Lvov mints emitted Galitian-Russian denarii as well, 60 pieces (or kopa) of which equaled the purchase power of one silver Galitian-Russian grosz. With the beginning of emission in Krakow in 1394 of crown semi-groszes, with lower foot compared to the Czech coins, the contents of silver in the Galitian-Russian grosz changed. Metrological calculations of silver content in groszes produced in Lvov in 1395-1399, as well as in Lvov semi-groszes minted in 1399-1408 show that, starting with 1395, every exchange of the local currency into the Prague grosz fixed an additional payment („additio”) of 20% to the Lvov coins. Quite unexpectedly, truncated Prague groszes of Waclaw II, Ian I of Luxemburg and Carl IV were massively present on Galitian markets in 14-15 centuries.
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This paper aims to find a zoomorphological interpretation for the image of dragon – a widely spread image on religious objects on the territory of medieval Moldova. Dragon is a fairy creature still endowed with real morphological elements mostly borrowed from some existing reptiles such as snake and not only, as it will be seen from further analysis.Dragon is generally seen as a product of late urban culture, where as a result of weaker connection with the animal world the man mixes morphological elements of some animals with threatening and mysterious powers in his imagination: snake, predatory bird, wolf, scorpion. This paper makes use of representations which have already received professional attention. In some cases there were made some revisions, highlighting therewith some specific morphological elements. For example, the case of the dragon identified as “insect-dragon” turned to be the image of a scorpion. The analysis of morphological representation of the dragon used 3 categories of sources: flags, stamps and tiles. In the case of the first two, their official character has possibly imposed certain standards of representation of the fairy animal. Out of these, there were analyzed two flags representing the scene with St. George fighting with the dragon, flags offered by Stephan the Great (Stefan cel Mare) to Zographou monastery from the Mountain of Athos. Also studied was the image of the dragon on a big number of stamps belonging to episcopacy of Moldova whose protector St. George was, the majority of representations being simplistic variants of one common model. The tiles represent the main source of this study based on works regarding the tiles of medieval Moldova. The tiles offer a huge diversity of forms where the dragon occurs, in this case the form itself being much influenced by the subjectivity of imagination and skills of the craftsman. Thus there occur reflections of fear of different animals: snake, wolf, scorpion, but there can be also found caricature elements, such as a duck head.
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The article dwells on the period of formation and strengthening of scientific Byzantine studies in Ukrainian lands of the Russian Empire (1804-1874) – from foundation of Kharkiv University till transfer of the prominent domestic Byzantinist F.I.Uspenskiy to the Odessa University. Studies of Ukrainian scholars embraced all periods of existence of Byzantium. The most valuable contribution to research in Byzantine history was made by N.Murzakevych (Byzantine and Genovese policy in Crimea), A.P.Zernin (deeds of Emperors Basil the Macedonian, Constantine Porphyrogenitus, Patriarch Photias), N.A.Lavrovskiy (study of Russian-Byzantine treaties), V.S.Ikonnikov (problems of cultural, confessional, legal and political influence of Byzantium on Rus’), P.Uspenskiy (history of Athos monasteries). Three large groups of problems were mostly treated: country studies on history of Ukrainian territories that had been part of Byzantium; works on history of Byzantine-Slavic relations; works devoted to history of Byzantine internal policy and church.
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The object of research is a part of a vessel found on the river Dniester on a city boundary of Bender in 1992. A detailed study has shown that it is a boat made of one stem of tree (dugout), which seems to have been made in XV c. by means of thermal processing, which is confirmed by the radiocarbon analysis. Using available archeological and written records, the author considered questions connected with manufacturing techniques of such boats, and some moments of their using by men in the Mesolithic. A certain attention is paid to the role of boats made from one stem of tree (dugout) in history of the Dniester area. Special interest represents practical experience of manufacturing and testing a boat made of one stem of tree (dugout).
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The article studies the frame of a bronze signet ring found in filling of one of the features (No. 37) on the Old Orhei (Moldavian town of XV c.). The emblem of the signet is a schematic figure, which can be related to the “town gate” category (its destination in the Moldavian heraldry being so far debatable). It is inscribed into the Slavic ring legend, which contains the name of the ring’s owner, pan Galesh (Sir Galesh). it was Galesh the comis (groom), whose son Ieremia the visternik (treasurer) was married to Annushka, who was daughter of Vlaicu, the uncle of Steven the Great (Ştefan cel Mare). This Vlaicu was member of gospodar’s council and in various periods used to carry out the duties of a pircalab (governor) of the fortresses of Cetatea Alba, Hotin and Orhei (1480-1484). It is supposed that the surname of Galesh, the family of Galesh mentioned also in a gravestone inscription in the Old Orhei used to carry out military and administrative functions in the region till 1499 when the Tatars ruined the town.
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The church in Razboieni was erected by Stefan cel Mare in 1496 to commemorate the warriors perished in the battle at Valea Alba on July 26, 1476 against a strong Ottoman army led by the sultan Mehmed II. During this battle the Moldavian army suffered heavy losses. An inscription on the church tells about these events in very expressive words. Archaeological research pursued in Razboieni in 1973 revealed large quantity of re-inhumated bones forming a stratum of 0.40 m lying in the altar part and in the median part of the nave at the distance of approximately 1 m from the lateral walls. In front of the altar, a second stratum of bones overlying the first one was discovered on a somewhat smaller area. Thus, the finds prove truthfulness of Grigore Ureche’s information given in his chronicle, where he wrote that the church in Razboieni was erected over the bones of soldiers perished at Valea Alba. Bones of those who died to protect their country and Christian faith, placed under and in front of the altar, similar to martyr’s relics placed in crypts under the palaeo-Christian sanctuaries, make the church in Razboieni a unique example of ecclesiastic edifice of Romanian medieval architecture meant to honour the memory of heroes fallen in the battle for their country’s independence.
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The article overviews main stages in history of a uniquely preserved Belgorod-Dnestrovskiy (Akkerman) fortress in perspective of achievements of military fortification of late Middle Age and New Time. It is known that the fortress was almost completed by 70s of XV century by the Moldavian builders. At the same time already, however, its main features did not comply with the advanced military engineering ideas. Next stage in existence of the fortress is connected with the period of Ottoman Rule (1484-1806). During almost the entire period, the Turks did not introduce any absolutely new elements in its main constructive features; rather, they limited their activities mainly to small reconstruction of separate sections and structures, repairs and cleaning of the ditch. It was only in 1793 that a French engineer Cauffer designed a number of projects aimed at renovation of the Akkerman fortress, and it seems that one of them could be partly realised. Some works to enhance the fortress were conducted by the Russian engineers in 1813-1814, but even they did little to change the general look of the fortress and its defence capacity. Consequently, the fortress of Belgorod-Dnestrovskiy built in XV century AD is a typical model of classical European (and Byzantine) fortresses of XII-XIV cc.
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The article reveals new data concerning the coins with Caffa‘s countermark and copper folleri, which were found during the archaeological studying of Caffa in 1994 — 1996. According to the previous publications data are suggested of different types of copper coins. Countermark of copper Djuchid’s pul of the early 20s up to the early 30s of XV century, probably, preceded the issue of Caffa’s own small coins value. In circulation of different copper folleri’s series it was possible to determine four chronological periods, each of them marked by a specific type of coin. First: 1434 —1442 obverse side — the emblem of Genoa — portal, the other — Djuchid’s tamga (Fig. 1: 7, 8). The second: 1443 —1453 obverse side — the emblem of Genoa — portal, the other — Girey’s tamga (Fig. 1: 9). The third: 1453 — 1466 obverse side — Saint George, the other — Girey’s tamga (Fig. 1: 13). The Fourth 1466 —1475 obverse side — the emblem of Genoa — portal, the other — Saint George (Fig. 1: 10 — 12, 14).
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The T formed symbol, which was the constant basic element of all official monograms of the princes of Crimean Gothia could be a full semantic equivalent of capital T on aspres. The possible genetic relations of the Mangup rulers with Circassians of Taurika cannot be excluded.
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The article goes on to discuss the problem of the so called land of Shypyntsi, military and political relations between Poland and Moldavia in the context of the history of Northen Bukovina, the problem of Polish-Moldavian opposition and borderland cooperation in the reign of Alexander I the Kind (1400—1432) and the end of Shypyntsi land.
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Urban aspects and, especially, architectonics of a building are key factors to the dating of the octagon church in Mangoup and its identification. Based on the analysis compared to information of an epigraphic source the temple is believed to have been erected in 1427 and dedicated to St. Constantine and Elena as a castle church of the Feodoro rulers. This is supported by archaeological evidence.
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The article addresses use of artillery arms in the large armed conflict between the Polish Kingdom and Grand Duchy of Lithuania with the Teutonic Order in early 15th c. The author analyses quantity, types and cost of cannon production in these conflicting European states. He traces also the tactics of fire artillery used in siege operations, as well as peculiarities of itsapplication in the field during the active military campaigns in 1409—1410. The author also notes the impact of the Great War over the beginning of «gunpowder revolution» process in some countries of Central and Eastern Europe.
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In 1475, the Turks seized the town of Kaffa — the capital of Genoese factories in Crimea. This event was reflected in Latin and Turkish written sources. A separate group of sources is made of Armenian texts written in different time periods and of different contents. The analysis of Armenian sources indicates that their account is not always reliable and is frequently exaggerated. The author comes to a conclusion that the reason of Kaffa’s fall was not a military and technical weakness, but rather psychological unwillingness to defend the city. The two decades of discord in the urban community in the context of declining trade and political instability transformed this large center of Christianity in the east into an easy loot for the Islamic warriors.
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Four types of Muhammad bin Timur’s dangs with common reverse legend, containing (according to the interpretation of the author) name of Mahmud bin Küchük Muhammad and his title beklerbek, are published and analyzed. The article includes images of coins, reconstructions and interpretations of their legends. It was ascertained that on Küchük Muhammad’s coins his name could be transmitted as Muhammad bin Timur or simply as Muhammad. Published dangs suggest that Mahmud, the son of Küchük Muhammad, during some time held the post of beklerbek under his father and at this time coins were minted with the name and title of Mahmud bin Muhammad as beklerbek on their reverses instead of the mint name. These coins were intended to inform people about the heir to the throne.
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The representations on shields from the surface of the slabs with construction inscriptions from 1452 and 1454, found in the fortress of Belgorod-Dnestrovsk (Asprokastron, Monkastro, Cetatea Albă, Akkerman), are the monogram of the Moldavian ruler Alexandru II, known also as Alexăndrel and Olechno. The schematical drawing of the first of these slabs, made in 1819, as well as relatively well preserved fragments of the relief and characteristical shape of the shears of the completely lost parts of the second one allow the author to state that the heraldric field bears the combination of two letters, arranged vertically — first letter is „A” and the second, partially covered by the border of the shield, is „L”. The roots of the monogram itself are not very evident, but it is very possible that the monogram is of Crimean origin. At the least, such heraldric signs are quite characteristic regalia for the Theodoro princes, who could have been in friendly relationship with the Moldavian rulers already in the second half of the 1430s. It is assumed that this coat of arms and the coins of Alexăndrel with Slavic legend were worked by one craftsman.
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