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Based on a comprehensive study of various written sources and ethnographic materials, this paper considers some aspects of personal hygiene of nomads, who lived in the Eurasian steppes during the 13th–15th centuries, i.e., primarily in the states of Genghis Khan and his descendants. Regarding both similar living conditions and ethnocultural situation, as well as the important role of traditions in the nomadic society of Central Asia, the data of the ethnographic sources about the everyday life of nomads during the subsequent eras (in the 16th–20th centuries) were extrapolated to the nomadic society of Genghis Khan’s states. The body hygiene procedures (associated with face, hands, and head hair) were analyzed. The main personal hygiene products (combs, scissors, mirrors, cosmetics (white paint), soap, etc.) were described. It was revealed that the hygiene culture of nomads in the Eurasian steppes developed under the influence of the following objective factors: nature and climate, economic and living conditions. In this process, the faith-related factors and the worldview were also critical, mostly in Ulus and Jochi. The hygiene knowledge and practices of all nomads were generally similar, but there were some specific features associated with their ethnocultural background.
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Because this year (more precisely on August 11th) is the 565th anniversary of the transition to the eternal ones of John Hunyadi, but also because the famous ruler by state and by army of origin Romanian meant a lot to the history of Banat, I decided to draw up this modest study in his memory to be printed in this remarkable publication. John Hunyadi was one of the greatest European political and military leaders of the 15th century, standing out as the initiator and commander of the anti-Ottoman fight. He was born around 1407 as the son of Vojk, “soldier of the royal court”, son of Şerbu (an important Romanian knyaz in the Haţeg land), and Elizabeth of Marginea, descendant of lesser noblemen from Hunedoara (migrated probably into Transylvania from the Banatian district of Marginea) who had embraced Catholicism, the faith in which her children, including Hunyadi, were raised. Most of the narrative and official (diplomatic) historical sources of his time and subsequently confirmed its Romanian roots. Marco Antonio Bonfinio (Bonfini/Bonfinius), an Italian scholar, wrote in his chronicle that John Hunyadi’s father was Romanian, one of those who “inhabit the land of the Getae and the Dacians, descendants of the Roman settlers, as proved by the language they speak”. The great Italian scholar, Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, who would later become pope Pius II, wrote that John Hunyadi “whose name far outshines the others did not increase so much the glory of the Hungarians, but especially the glory of the Romanians among whom he was born”. In his times, it was known that Hunyadi “was not a Hungarian but a Romanian of a lesser nobility”. In the 19th and 20th century many Banatian scholars took a keen interest in the origin, personality and deeds of John Hunyadi. We mention here: Nicolae Stoica of Haţeg, Damaschin Bojincă, Iosif Bălan, Victor Motogna (a Banatian by adoption), Patriciu Dragalina etc. Worthy of remark is Damaschin Bojincă’s monograph about the great Christianity’s hero called The description of birth and heroic deeds of very famous and all Scurtă prezentare biografică a lui Iancu de Hunedoara 91 over Europe of the wonderful hero John Corvinus of Hunyadi. Half of this study deals with the matter of John Hunyadi’s Romanian origin. On 18 October 1409 John Hunyadi’s father was ennobled and received Hunedoara possession with surrounding villages from king Sigismund of Luxembourg (1387-1437). After having served his apprenticeship at some laymen and clergymen’s courts and even monarchs as well, John took part in the anti-Ottoman fight in the south of Hungary, leading his own detachment of 6-12 cavalrymen. Around 1428-1430 he married Elizabeth Szilágyi, a Hungarian noblewoman of high rank from Solnacul de Mijloc county (or Slavonia) whose family were supporters of Sigismund of Luxembourg. They had two children, Ladislau and Matthias (the future king of Hungary between1458-1490). With the support of his wife’s family, John entered the retinue of Sigismund (emperor 149 of Germany since 1410) and he served Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan, in his anti-Venetian campaign. In this period John Hunyadi completed his military education and training and studied the new military art of Italy from the condottieres. In 1434 he accompanied his monarch at the Council of Basel, Switzerland. In 1436-1437 he joined Sigismund of Luxembourg in his campaign in Bohemia (Czechia). Although king “de jure” Sigismund was to become king “de facto” as the country people, townspeople and lesser nobility wouldn’t acknowledge the German suzerainty. At that time, John was already leading his own detachment of 50 troopers. On 9 December 1437 Sigismund of Luxembourg died and Hunyadi went to Alba Iulia to attend the coronation of Albert of Austria (1438-1439) as king of Hungary. Then he returned to Bohemia where he spent the remainder of the year 1438, so he did not take part in the suppression of the peasant revolt in Transylvania (1437-1438). Although king Albert of Austria was acknowledge by a group of noblemen from Czechia, the Hussites were against him, preferring Casimir, the brother of the Polish king, as their sovereign. John Hunyadi and his brother were engaged in king Albert’s warfare with the Bohemians and their Polish allies. In 1438, during peace negotiations, king Albert promoted Hunyadi to Ban of Severin, a dignity that he shared with his brother. He was soon in the ascendant. On 7 March 1441 king Vladislav I rewarded him with the title of voivode of Transylvania, position retained until 1446. During this time he was also Comes of Temes and Comes of the Szekely. His sovereigns recognized his merits by granting him vast estates in Transylvania, the Banat and eastern Hungary. All these brought him great revenues, John Hunyadi being the greatest landowner in Hungary at the time. In 1445 he became Captain General of Hungary and in 1446 he was rewarded by king Vladislav I with the captaincy of the fortress of Belgrade. In June 1446 he found himself at the peak of his political career when he was elected as Regent-Governor of the kingdom of Hungary by the Diet. Supporter of the centralization of political power, on the external plan John Hunyadi consequently sought to create a system based on 92 Altarul Banatului tightening the ties between the three Romanian principalities in order to form a united anti-Ottoman front. At the same time he aimed to launch a Christian crusade to oust the Ottomans from Europe. In 1442 he defeated the Turks at Sibiu and Ialomiţa. In 1442-1443, during the famous expedition known as “the long campaign”, John Hunyadi crossed the Balkans advancing as far as Zlatita where he scored a brilliant victory over the Turks, then in 1445 obtain a new victory over them in a campaign undertaken along the Danube, but he was defeated in the battles of Varna (1444) and Kossovopolje (1448). 150 After his resounding victory against the Ottoman armies led by sultan Mohammed II (1444-1446; 1451-1481), in July 1456 in the famous Battle of Belgrade, John Hunyadi died of bubonic plague in his camp at Zemun, near Belgrade, on 11 August 1456. He is buried in the Roman Catholic Cathedral “St. Michael” of Alba Iulia. His funeral plaque was engraved with John of Capestrano’s words: “The light of the world has passed away”.
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Book-Reviews: Georg Ziaja: Lexikon des polnischen Adels im Goldenen Zeitalter 1500–1600. Ferdinand Schöningh Verlag. Paderborn 2019. 297 S., Ill., Kt. ISBN 978-3-506-79234-1. (€ 128,–.); Ders.: Lexikon der katholischen Bischöfe im Polen des Goldenen Zeitalters 1500– 1600. Ferdinand Schöningh. Paderborn 2020. 236 S., Kt. ISBN 978-3-506-70318-7. (€ 128,–.) ‒ Jacek Kordel
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The Archbishop of Esztergom (lat. Strigonium), Dionisius of Szecs, is considered a controversial figure in historical literature. In a short time, he crowned two Hungarian kings: 14 May 1440 as a faithful servant of Queen Elizabeth her three-month-old son, Ladislav the Posthumous, and 17 July 1440, apparently under pressure, also his enemy Vladislaus I. Despite the indisputable fact of the double coronation, the historians are now more cautious regarding the role of the Archbishop. As an excellent speaker and diplomat, he favored negotiations over violence and was instrumental in settling several seemingly insoluble conflicts. He also played an important role in the election of Mathias Corvinus as King of Hungary, which he eventually crowned (as the third ruler in his life). His merits in the church are also important: despite the difficult period he began to build the cathedral and archbishop’s palace in Esztergom, convened several church synods, supported monasteries and increased the importance of the Archbishop of Esztergom by achieving the title Primate of Hungarian church.
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This brief study attempts to reopen the old discussion regarding the identification of the Crăciuna citadel (fortification), which was built by Radu the Handsome, ruler of Wallachia, across the border and inside Moldavia, after his humiliating defeat at the Battle of Sochi in Wallachia against Stephen the Great, on the 7th of March 1471. The next step after establishing the location of Sochi in Wallachia, near the border with Moldavia, was the topographic identification (both in the documentation and in the field) of the place where Stephen the Great diverted the Siret river around Crăciuna citadel, in order to annihilate it strategically. This identification was done in Vulturu de Jos, located in Vrancea county, near Vadu-Roșca, on an old riverbed of the Siret, which today is named Valea Vulturului (Eagle’s Valley), located in Moldavia, across the border and in the immediate vicinity of Sochi
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«Di rado appare nella letteratura mondiale un genere artistico comune a tanti popoli corne la balïata dei secoli XIII-XVI. La maggior parte dei popoli europei si sono dati un appuntamento sul terreno délia ballata». Cosi si esprimeva A. Heusler nel 1922.
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The Iranian area has recently come to the agenda of Turcology research with the emergence of a new height of Dede Korkut stories. Epics, stories, proverbs and idioms that we have compiled in this rich cultural geography are of great importance for the Turkish world. The Compilation Epic that we compiled from this region was described by Ashiq Yedullah in Tabriz in 1970 as the longest verse and prose epic of the Turkish World. The general subject of the epic is the spread of the religion of Islam. In this respect, it has similarity to the Epic of Şikâri, Danişment-nâme and Battal-nama. Şikâri Epic motif structure is one of our richest epics. In addition to all the motifs seen in the book of Dede Korkut, it is possible to see the motifs encountered in the legends of Azerbaijan in this epic. Religious elements in this epic; The motif of being left in the well and being saved by the merchants, inviting the people of the places where the protagonist has visited, to Islam, making the ablution and praying before the war, bringing the Word-Good Shahada and becoming the Muslim and converting churches into mosques. In this study, we will focus on religious elements in the Epic of Şikâri.
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This paper investigates the development of the main crafts meeting the social needs for food and clothing in the agrarian economy of Shkodra on the eve of the final Ottoman takeover in 1467. It focuces on two archival documents to analyze the development of crafts in the city: the Statutes of Shkodra and the Registry of Cadastre and Concessions for the district of Shkodra (1416-1417). These sources demonstrate the municipal administration of the city and summarize the normative acts of regulating crafts organization and functioning of daily life, relations between citizens, the population and the ruling class, and between the city and its surroundings. So, they provide considerable information and a framework of crafts by presenting the conditions and obligations that artisans should fulfill in their activity and the guarantee and legal protection offered by the municipalities. Thus, this paper tries to contextualize the forms of production and the means of occupation in the fifteenth-century Shkodra by departing from these two sources.
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Iako se fojnički samostan može pohvaliti poveljom (ahdname) sultana Mehmeda Osvajača iz 1463. koju je dvadeset godina kasnije (1483) priznao i potvrdio sultan Bajazid II., postoje indicije koje upućuju na to da je samostanu u Kraljevoj Sutjesci još između 1485. i 1489. spomenuti sultan Bajazid II. (vladao 1481–1512) udijelio vladarsku zapovijed koja je redovnicima potvrdila oslobađanje od svih takozvanih izvanrednih poreza (avarız-i divaniye). Na taj je način položaj samostana u Kraljevoj Sutjesci u vidu poreznih pitanja po prvi put određen kao „povlašten“ (muaf ve müsellem).
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One of the process by poets and writers to reveal their talents in the Ottoman Empire Era is to present their works on various occasions to the sovereigns. The ascension of the new rulers to the throne is a significant opportunity to presentat texts and works. Based on writing of the Cülûsiye texts lie thoughts such as congratulating the new sovereign, receiving cülusiye tip and being promoted to a higher rank following their poetry talent. In this study, the cülusiye ode by Sheikh Muhammed Salih Efendi (d. 1302/1884) by virtue of Sultan Abdülaziz's ascension to the throne has been examined. After providing information about life of the poet and cülusiye genre, the transcribed text (translation text) by Sheikh Muhammed Salih Efendi's culûsiye recorded in the Ottoman State Archive has been written and examined in terms of text, shape and meaning. In this regard, by looking through a new verse discovered, it is aimed to contribute to the cülûs literature which has not been studied in detail. Even if his only one poem has been identified, Sheikh Muhammed Salih Efendi, having the ability to write Turkish, Arabic and Persian poetry, has been introduced to the world of literature as a divan poet.
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The systematic archaeological investigations of the cathedral complex in Udbina, with minor interruptions, have lasted since 2000 to this day. In the Cathedral of St James the Greater and its annexes 405 graves from the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern Age were investigated. The deceased were placed in walled tombs, wooden coffins, graves with architecture and directly into the ground. Very valuable, fine, archaeological material was found amongst which jewellery (earrings and rings) dominated. Amongst the numerous graves grave 195, in which an adult woman had been buried, stands out. In the grave were found two luxurious silver earrings with three equally large beads, among which was located one cog, then a glided silver ring with an octagonal crown and an iron clasp with two pins.Based on the carried out analysis the finds in grave 195 were dated to the second half of the 14th century and the beginning of the 15th century.
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The author concisely and comprehensively looks back at the results of the investigation of the Glagolitic press (particularly its publications), which operated at the end of the 15th century and in the first decade of the 16th century. Local religious intellectuals founded it for their own needs: in order that with it they implemented a publishing programme in which the Glagolitic priests would provide basic liturgical books, contemporary church handbooks and religious(literary) works that they mainly issued in the European Christian West. Prepared for printing first was a Glagolitic breviary. It was prepared by Canon Blaž Baromić, a talented scribe. He took the prepared manuscript to the printing workshop of the reputable Andrija Torresanija in Venice where the Brevijar was printed. Baromić supervised the printing and revised the text. Whilst with Torresanija he studied and mastered the skill of printing. From Venice he returned to Senj with the printed Croatian Breviary, completed on 13th March 1493. Along with the Brevijar he transported to Senj a printing press, lead letters and other equipment necessary for the independent work of a printing workshop. By 7th August 1491 thefollowing had been published by the press in Senj: Misal; 25th April 1496. Spovid općena, a translation of the Italian manual of general confession Confessionale generale (M. Carcano). In the 15th century Ritual was probably published with Meštrija dobra umrtija (Ars bene moriendi / Art of dying well) of which two incomplete copies have been preserved – without beginning and end, which means without the date of publication. In Senj in 1507 also published was Naručnikplebanušev ali popov, a translation of the popular pre-Tridentine catechism Manipulus curatorum. In 1508 three books were published: on 5th May Transit sv. Jerolima, a translation from Italian (Venetian publication from 1487: Transito de s. Girolamo); 15th June Mirakulislavne Deve Marije, a translation from the Italian collection Miracoli della gloriosa Vergine Maria; 17th October Korizmenjak, a translation of Lenten sermons Quadragesimale volgare, which was written by the renowned preacher Caracciolo. The books were translated into the Chakavian dialect, enriched with elements of Church Slavonic language “which was in the foundation of the then speech of Senj.” Translators of Senj’s publications called their language Croatian. As good linguistic material Senj’s non-liturgical editions entered sources from which a monumental historical Rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika (Dictionary of the Croatian or Serbian Language) was made by the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts. The liturgical Senj Glagolitic editions were printed in the Croatian Church Slavonic language. Original copies of the books are very rare, but the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts and the Senj Town Museum re-published three editions (Misal, Spovid općenu and Korizmenjak). With the republications the research of Senj’s press and its publications has advanced in recent times: each edition has been described in detail (outer description, contents, font and type); for some editions a direct template was identified; preserved original copies are listed and where they are found: the editions are researched as typographical products, that is as objects whose form and contents are determined by the printing and handicraft processes etc.
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Krbava Field, as with other regions of Croatia, from the 15th - 17th centuries was constantly attacked by the Ottoman army. After the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 the Ottomans made raids over Bosnia into Croatia and over it into Slovenia and Austria, which they also partially accomplished over Krbava Field. They sacked Udbina in 1460, defeated the Croatian army in 1493 on Krbava Field and from 1527 – 1689 they permanently ruled Krbava. It is most probable that in the first Ottoman incursions on Krbava, ie. in the 15th and 16th centuries, that the people hid in caves. To date speleologists on the edge of Krbava Field have found many caves which were used as refuge because in their entrances were built defensive walls. On the northern edge of Krbava Field are located the Zelena and Kulinacavern, on the western part the Dabina, on the eastern Zidana. On the approaches to Krbava Field, to the north, in Kozjanska Draga is located Vranova, and on the southern pass Ivanova. Unfortunately, not one of these caves has any kind of data from the period of their use. The first data about them only from originates the 19th century when the caves were already long out of use.
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The concept of fear includes more than humanity’s physiological responses to sudden stimuli. Although it is known that fear is constituted as a result of a certain biological reaction, cultural and socio-psychological experiences not only play a sensational role in its formation but also they are the causation of fear transferring itself from one generation to another. The types of fear varies depending on its geography, culture, and time; however, many sources of fear, such as darkness, loneliness, natural events, war, hunger, disease have survived unchanged since the moment of human existence. The only change regarding this terminology then takes place according to the way humanity has been dealing with its consequences. Likewise, humanity undergoes fear through the experiences within culture, the reflection of the feeling of fear on art also has been directly related to the cultural level and has been represented by the point of view in the age it has taken a part. Hence, while the themes of fear idealized itself with a more symbolic language in the classical era, it has reconstructed itself with a new and unprecedented reality thanks to the suggestion by the Modern Age. The prominent product of this reconstruction predicated by the modern era becomes, therefore, nothing but the fear associated with the fractured industrialization and the technology offered by the modern era. In this study, thus, the concept of fear is theoretically handled in a way that the sources of fear among human beings are defined in general terms, and the theme of fear in the history of art is examined in a chronological order. In the later chapter, the concept of fear is examined through the works of art, made by modern artists; Max Beckmann, Otto Dix, and Ludwig Meinder. Here, then the readers briefly witness an analytical and interpretive comparison between the artistic expressions from the listed artists above and the aesthetic representations formed within the classical period. The aim of this study, in conclusion, is to reveal the way the terminology of fear has been aesthetically depicted from the period of the Renaissance to the Modern era, and emphasize the comparisons between the artistic methods of both periods which have respectively expressed the concept of fear according to their way of understanding the world.
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In this study, the history of interdisciplinary interaction was examined, and examples of how different disciplines were handled together in Ancient Greece and the Middle Ages were given. By referring to the historical process of color and sound analogy, the versatility of the Renaissance artist and the idea of the first color harpsichord developed by Arcimboldo are emphasized. The parallel evolution of plastic arts and music with the idea of humanism and the importance of positive sciences since the Renaissance has strengthened the relationship between these two arts. In this context, the similar thoughts and parallels of the Baroque period in painting and music aesthetics have been included in this study, and the color keyboard design developed by the French priest and scientist Castel's controversial and interdisciplinary perspective was examined. The 18th century is a period of intense interdisciplinary experimentation and, unlike previous art theories, emphasizes autonomy in aesthetic sense. Inspired by Newton’s book Opticks and Pythagoras’s Law of Spheres, Castel thinks that this instrument, in which he associates notes with colors, will impress the audience as much as the music itself. Based on the interaction of color and sound, this initiative is potentially designed to combine two arts. The functioning and effects of the idea of color music in Castel's dream, his success or failure in this subject, and the views of the artists and theorists he inspired about this design constitute the center of the study.
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Today when we celebrate the end of work of Senj’s glagolitic press in Senj, which – as known – worked successfully from 1494 until 1508, which is described in great detail in the literature , it is good to remember the beginning of the printing art because it is closely connected to a specially important activity related to book i.e. book printing. The invention of printing was related to the name of Johannes Gutenberg who in 1455 in Mainz finished his first typographic work – the famous Latin Bible on 1,282 leaves in two columns of 42 lines. Since then i.e. from 1455 until 1500, which is considered to be the beginning of the development of printing and books printed in this period were called incunabulas. We can be proud to say that Croats belong to these small number of European people who had their incunabula i.e. their own books printed in their territory during the first decades of printing.
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The author’s intention is to give a complete overview of Senj’s glagolitic heritage. Firstly he explains the appearance of glagolitic in Senj and then its recognition by the Catholic Church’s government. In the following text the author represents the most important glagolitic manuscripts and inscriptions related to Senj, the work of the glagolitic press and then he follows the decadence of glagolitic culture and its destiny through Propaganda issues, Schiaveta and the return of the Croatian edition according to Parčić Missal.
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Im Beitrag werden zwei Kategorien von Artefakten diskutiert, die sich auf flämische Traditionen in Schlesien beziehen. Die ältesten Spuren gehen ins 13./14. Jh. zurück und können als Belege einer physischen Anwesenheit von romanisch sprechenden Ansiedlern in Schlesien zur Zeit der sog. Ostsiedlung interpretiert werden. Das Vorkommen von anderen flämischen Einflüssen in der Region ist schwieriger zu erklären. Diese Artefakte, die ins 14./15. Jh. datiert werden, fanden die Weg nach Schlesien zusammen mit flämischer Bewaffnung und Tafelgeschirr, die sich dorthin vom böhmischen Hof her ausbreiteten.
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