Bosanska povijesna stvarnost i njezini mitološki odrazi

Author(s): Srećko M. Džaja / Language(s): Croatian Publication Year: 0

Zapadnjački promatrači prilika u Jugoistočnoj Europi nakon krvavog raspada Jugoslavije konstatiraju da u javnom i političkom životu narodâ Balkana odnosno Jugoistočne Europe povijest igra daleko istaknutiju ulogu negoli kod narodâ klasične odnosno Zapadne Europe. Tako engleski sociolog John B. Allcock u svom Tumačenju Jugoslavije, koje je po svoj prilici namijenio kao jednu vrstu Vade mecuma kroz balkanske prostore prvenstveno političarima i diplomatima, primjećuje sljedeće: Narodi južnoslavenske regije nose sa sobom svoju povijest ne samo kao objektivnu prošlost koja uvjetuje djelovanje u sadašnjosti, nego isto tako kao subjektivnu prošlost. Prošlost oblikuje njihovu svijest i pruža im građu iz koje oni pletu svoje predodžbe i o prošlosti i o budućnosti.

Германия на границата между двете епохи (края на XV и началото на XVI век)

Author(s): Simeon Katsarov / Language(s): English,Bulgarian Publication Year: 0

In the begining of the 16-th century, the German states were experiencing one of the unruly and problematic periods of their history. That was the time when these parts of Europe passed through a considerable social and political transformation. It was also then that the situation of the lower social strata deteriorated, which led to varied in type and scope discontent among the population naturally demanding most generally political and social reconstruction, as well as having a negative attitude attitude to the clergy. The negative attitude to the church quite naturally developed into a general desire for reform. German humanism itself "sank" more and more into the problem field of religious, theological and church issues. These were all nuances of the then existing German reality which will help us understand the later inception of the reform movement.

Az Európa-gondolat fejlődéstörténete a második világháborúig

Author(s): Balázs Varga / Language(s): Hungarian Publication Year: 0

Uz obljetnicu Divkovićeva Nauka krstjanskoga i Sto čudesa

Author(s): Fra Marko Karamatić / Language(s): Croatian Publication Year: 0

Četiri stotine godina prve tiskane knjige na narodnom jeziku iz Bosne i Hercegovine jedna je od stožernih činjenica kulturne povijesti na ovim prostorima. Matija Divković (1563-1631) objavljivanjem Nauka krstjanskoga i Sto čudesa 1611. godine otvara prvu stranicu povijesti knjige na narodnom jeziku u Bosni i Hercegovini, stoljeće i pol nakon izuma tiskarskog stroja. Od epohalnog otkrića tiska, s pomičnim lijevanim slovima, Johanna Gutenberga (o. 1397–1468) u Mainzu, sredinom XV. stoljeća – po nekima najvažnijeg događaja drugog tisućljeća poslije Krista – i tiskanja prve Biblije od 42 retka (1455), najblistavijeg izdanja ranog tiskarstva, prošlo je više od pet i pol stoljeća. Kroz to su se vrijeme dogodile ogromne promjene na kulturnom i civilizacijskom planu zahvaljujući tom događaju. Samo pedeset godina nakon otkrića tiskarskog stroja, u Europi je bilo otisnuto već oko 35.000 izdanja knjiga u 10 milijuna primjeraka, a prema nekim procjenama možda čak u 15 do 20 milijuna. Sve se te knjige – tiskane do 1500. godine – nazivaju inkunabule ili prvotisci. Sačuvano ih je oko 450.000 primjeraka tiskanih u više od 1.100 tiskara. Prvotisci su danas najdragocjeniji sadržaj i ures velikih svjetskih knjižnica.

The Mystery of the Transmutation of Iron into Copper in the 16th - 18th Centuries

Author(s): Miroslav Kamenický / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

Alchemy is a special branch of learned magic. In Central Europe it was cultivated more than all the other offshoots of learned occultism. Alchemy, like the mentality supporting it, relied on Aristotelian principles. From the point of view of formal logic, the transmutation of metals was close to Catholic transubstantiation. It was close to the thinking of the early modern person whether from the Catholic or the Protestant environments. Experimental activity was cultivated in alchemy. It combined real and practical metallurgy with speculative metaphysics. There were extraordinarily many real stimuli for alchemy in the Habsburg Monarchy. For example, there were gold, silver and copper mines in the territory of present day Slovakia. These were notable for strange mysteries, for which the scientific knowledge of the time could give only speculative explanations.

Weather Magic in the Early Modern Period as Reflected in the Minutes of Witchcraft Trials

Author(s): Éva Pócs / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

In the past few decades I have begun to examine the role that magic played in the lives of village and small town societies in the early modern period, in their mentality, religiosity and belief system. The examination was based on sources related to witchcraft. It is commonly known that the minutes of the witchcraft trials which took place throughout the 16th to 18th centuries are valuable sources with regard to the rural communities of the early modern period, in fact they constitute the only early modern source, which gives a detailed account of the communal role and social background of magic. The witness accounts of these trials reflect almost directly the ‘rural witchcraft’, which took place in the background of the official events and preceded these trials. Contrary to the accused, who may even have been forced by the expectations of elite demonology to make a false statement, the witnesses reconstructed the goings on of their village in the context of traditional witchcraft belief. They relate those of their memories, which can be interpreted as malefactions of a witch in the light of their beliefs. This allows us to gain what might near enough be called direct evidence regarding bewitchment (‘maleficium’) or black magic (or, in fact, its absence, as we shall see in what follows).

Zwierzęta w książce dawnej

Author(s): Izabela Wiencek-Sielska / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The first part of the article includes advice on how to search for content and images on zoological topics in old books on the example of the collection of early printed books in the Warsaw University Library. It is followed by the summary results of the thematic query conducted in the Early Printed Book department of the Warsaw University Library, as a result of which 90 Polish books containing zoological threads and published between 16th and 18th centuries were selected. The author attempted to organize the publication according to the adopted content and genre division. Then, in short chapters several issues were signalled, which seem worth further scientific deepening. They are, among others: heraldic animals (whose images are also used in so-called stemmata, emblems and superexlibris), star signs and constellations, fantastic creatures, monsters and beasts (which were present in many Renaissance books as zoomorphic ornaments), the characteristics of wild and breeding animals left by 16th century authors, and various contexts in which a zoological thread is present in old herbaria.

„Uważać, […] abyśmy jako bydlęta nie żyli” – „z bydlęty równie chodziem”

Author(s): Grzegorz Raubo / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The study contains reflections on the relations between man and beast in the works of two writers, who played significant roles in Polish history of Christian Aristotelian writing of the Baroque. The main source is are the works of Sebastian Petrycy from Pilzno (1554–1626), published together with Aristotle’s works translated by him, i.e. "Commentaries to Aristotle’sEconomics" (1602), "Commentaries to Aristotle’s Politics" (1605) and "Commentaries to Aristotle’s Ethics" (1618), as well as written as scientia curiosa the encyclopedia of the Jesuit, Wojciech Tylkowski (1625–1695), "Erudite Discussions Containing Almost All Philosophy" (1692), whose basis was his earlier work "Philosophia curiosa seu universa Aristotelis philosophia" (1680–1690). The analysis of the title subject leads to the conclusion that the essential difference between regnum hominis and the animal world lies in the soul unique to a human being, created by God, endowed with reason and immortal. The difference between man and beast defined in such a way enabled to emphasize the privileged status of the ontic human being in the great chain of existence and justify human supremacy over fauna. Emphasizing the difference between man and animal, the authors of the analysed sources drew attention to the similarities between them, referring to the Aristotelian concept of the division of the soul into vegetative, sensitive and rational one. They also argued that the insight into similarities and differences between people and lower beings should inspire self-cognition, which aims to discipline animal features of human nature. An important thread of their inquiry was emphasizing ingenuity and intelligence in the behaviour of animals, while stressing that they should not be explained in an anthropomorphic way.

Symbole zwierzęce w literaturze religijnej XVI w.

Author(s): Maria Chodyko / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The text explores 16th century religious contexts in literature which refer to animals. It includes poetry and prose from the Early Renaissance to its last years, the works of Jakub Wujek, among others, who was the author of a monumental four-volume "Posthylla catholica", an original and not translated work. The sermons in this book are the biggest Polish collection of animal exempla from the 16th century. The text indicates the main source inspirations for animal topics, i.e. the Bible and Aesop’s "Fables", published by most European printers. The rules of modern animal topic were formulated by Erasmus of Rotterdam, who also used animal examples to paraphrase Biblical texts, formulate the rules of the rhetoric in De duplici copia verborum ac rerum, juxtapose exempla in Adagia, and to discuss the methods of educating young people in De pueris instituendis, on the basis of the human-animal parallel. The translations of the Bible and adaptations of ancient works formed an animal symbol characteristic of the Renaissance. His distinguishing features are: performance realism, identification of its literary context and its relation to divine and human being. The company of animals reminded people of their moral condition, focused them on good, aroused sensitivity and self-reflection. The Renaissance reception of Cicero contributed to discovering the subjectivity of animals, making them carriers of feelings: mourning, sympathy, helplessness in suffering. Biblical affirmation of life in the works of Janicius, Andrzej Krzycki, Andrzej Trzecieski and Jakub Wujek, saw charis in animals: grace, admiration, tenderness and affection. The metaphors of animal community, especially of sheepfold, were present in social and political discourse (Stanisław Orzechowski) and in the religious one (Stanisław Hozjusz, Andrzej Trzecieski and others). Anthropomorphization and teriomorphization, known since ancient times, in the discussed texts gain new interpretative, allegorical contexts, and in the second half of the 16th century become an expression of religious beliefs. In Catholicism animal symbols express transcendence aimed at internal and mystical experiences. In Protestantism they have didactic and allegoric meaning, which is also present in Arianism (Erazm Otwinowski). In other authors representing this last trend (Marcin Krowicki) the questioning and crisis of the symbol become sclearly visible.

Co mówią zwierzęta?

Author(s): Dariusz Chemperek / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The research was conducted on one hundred Old Polish animal tombs by different authors, from Jan Kochanowski to Jan Ludwik Plater (18th century). As a result, it was possible to define five paradigms of perceiving animals in Old Polish literature: 1. on the moral level (animals are subordinate to man, opposed to him only when they show solidarity with each other), 2. in the utilitarian context (their beauty and other features serve men), 3. in connection with the sphere of eroticism, 4. in the sacrum space and 5. on an equal footing with man (few epitaphs). Zoothanatology, present on Old Polish tombs, is dominated by functional perception of animals. The epitaphs serve as moral and, more frequently, immoral examples, far from the Christian vision of reality, but very useful to express “the law of the jungle” of the human world. Objectified animals occupy a separate, usually lower than that of a human, place in the order of nature as they are jokingly or seriously perceived from the angle of human sexuality. They are used as a pretext for writing panegyrics addressed to people and as objects of praise only when their beauty corresponds to the sense of aesthetics of man and their behaviour (mammals and domesticated animals) becomes like that of a human or serves the work and fun of their owners. The more animals discard their natural features, the more they are valued by people, becoming their companions, friends and, in the most extreme cases, the heroes of a battle (knights’ horses), who are treated equally with fallen soldiers. Even the reflections on the death of animals per se does not exempt Old Polish poets from the anthropocentric attitude. Only Zbigniew Morsztyn and Jan Gawiński, albeit in few cases, stand in their epitaphs on the animal side, which allows them to see the emerging sensitivity to their death and human cruelty.

"Animalia curiosa"

Author(s): Aleksandra Jakóbczyk-Gola / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The dissertation shows curiosity – curiositas as one of the most essential, apart from novitas, varietas, maraviglia, admiration, categories of the Baroque aesthetics. The article aims to show biological and neurological mechanisms governing this drive. The author discusses the qualities of the brain and how the prize works, which are the most important aspects of awakening and satisfying curiosity. The analysed notion is considered in one of its manifestations: the need to collect animals. Zoological specimens – apart from plants and minerals, frequently became the most important element of the collection of curiosities. As a result of the emancipation of natural sciences in the 17th century, numerous inventions and the change in attitude to knowledge, which was treated in a syncretic manner, human attitude to nature was also transformed. People were interested in nature more and all unusual and strange specimens were treated as the limits of power of creative nature. Although natural collections in old Poland were not as abundant as in Western or Southern Europe – armour, works of art and decorative arts were exhibited more often, they constituted an important component of contemporary cabinets of curiosities also in these areas. From this different, new research and collector’s perspective the objects which belong to the scientia curiosa trend look especially interesting. The basis for further reflections is the analysis of Wojciech Tylkowski’s "Erudite Discussions", which are characteristic of this intellectual trend. The article focuses on reading the vision of the animal world, which emerges from the Jesuit’s works. His questions, confirming the curiosity of the world are still surprisingly valid, and the answers given by the author show his profound knowledge of animals. The dissertation attempts to answer the question what “quaint” means in the Baroque era: on what basis a natural exhibit could be classified as unusual and what animals were perceived as such. Tylkowski attempts to answer this question differentiating between familiarity, ordinariness and strangeness and wildness, related to it.

„O ptactwie możnowładców, najpierw o pawiu i gęsi”

Author(s): Marta Pszczolińska / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The chapter is devoted to the analysis of the portrayal of animals in medieval and Renaissance culinary literature and texts on the specific dishes consumed by upper social classes. Old culinary books show animals not only as a natural product, rich in in appropriate nutrients, but also as an important component of dishes prepared for the tables of nobility. In this second aspect, individual animal species have additional cultural, symbolic or aesthetic meanings. An indispensable element of books, reflecting the then state of medical knowledge and existing opinions, is the assessment of animals as such and the recipes subjected to the theory of humours in terms of their suitability for different groups of people, with regard to their health, age, sex or background. De honesta voluptate et valitudine, Bartolomeo Platina’s Renaissance publication is a breakthrough in the earlier perception of cooking as a prosaic aspect of life. Platina shows a culinary animal in a new humanist version, devoting to it additional chapters containing natural knowledge, closely related to dietetics and medicine. The popularity of his treatise is reflected in how particular animals are described in Polish Renaissance herbaria.

Od natury do symbolu

Author(s): Barbara Milewska-Waźbińska / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The article aims to explore the origin of topoi connected with a swan and their presence in old literature and culture. The author attempts to draw attention to writers’ choices leading to the transposition of descriptions of nature and habits of the bird into symbolic images. The analysis was conducted on the basis of ancient literature and Latin literary works of the modern era, which until now was taken into account only to a small extent. Untranslated sources, including encyclopaedias of symbols and emblematic books were used. The second part of the article focuses on the swan as a heraldic figure. Undertaking threads contained in "The Medal of Bishop Andrzej Trzebnicki", a thorough study of Krzysztof Czyżewski and Marek Walczak, the author completed the analysis of stemmata dedicated to the bishop of Kraków with her own translations from Latin, a philological commentary and interpretation. In the last chapter the author asks the question why modern culture has forgotten the swan symbols and why only few of the meanings have survived in collective consciousness.

Pies też… gwiazda

Author(s): Agata Starownik / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The text analyses the use of dog motifs, Sirius – the “Dog Star” and the dog days of summer in Jan Andrzej Morsztyn’s "Kanikuła" in reference to astrological tradition. It recalls the most important elements of knowledge about Sirius in old culture and describes how they are used by Morsztyn. The author explores the poem Denomination and shows how the poet refers to the impact Sirius has on weather, people and dogs in other poems. Morsztyn shows dogs and the “dog star” in such a way that he blurs the boundaries between astronomical and religious sky, the heaven and the earth, man and animal. He sees dogs more as culture heroes than elements of nature, and he recalls them to create brilliant poetic games in which he half-jokingly testifies to his liking of skepticism, hedonism, sensualism, naturalism and erotism. In "Kanikuła", Sirius becomes a secular, natural deity, representing nature together with biological human desires. Yet, at the same time, he is an element of a literary game, which allows the poet to provoke and manifest scandalous ideas under the cover of play and seemingly not seriously.

Šuma Garavica i „ničija zemlja" na slavonsko-turskom pograničju u 16. i 17. stoljeću

Author(s): Stanko Andrić / Language(s): Croatian Publication Year: 0

At the time of its greatest expansion, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Ottoman Empire comprised the lower half of the land between the Drava and the Sava, previously part of the Hungarian-Croatian Kingdom. During the second half of the 16th century, the balance of power on that section of the new Ottoman border was established between the Ilova and Česma rivers, tributaries of the Sava, where a frontier zone was created, dividing the conquered parts (organized as Pakrac and Požega sanjaks) on the eastern side from the unconquered land (Croatia-Slavonia, as part of the Habsburg Empire) on the western side. There was no formal boundary line but rather a belt of “no man’s land”, a mostly depopulated stretch of land between the Drava and the Sava, which was from both sides carefully guarded by the crews of border fortresses. Through the use of written and subsequently also cartographic sources the author tries to show how this in the Middle Ages densely populated and economically well-developed area of the old Križevci and Virovitica counties became transformed into a deserted land where natural forces restored the primacy over the activities of human society. This “return to nature” manifested itself in the first place through unlimited growth of vegetation and ultimately natural reforestation – the growth of new forests throughout a relatively wide “march” or frontier zone. The Ottoman conquests in this area reached their limits in 1552 with the taking of important towns and fortresses of Virovitica near the Drava and of Čazma on the Česma river. The conquerors quickly established a new sanjak named Začasna after the medieval Croatian name of Čazma, Začesan or Začesemje (all forms meaning ‘beyond the Česma river’). However, they abandoned Čazma as soon as 1559 and moved the center of the sanjak to Pakrac, nearly 60 kilometers to the east. After the Slavonian-Turkish frontier zone finally stabilized around 1560, there were many episodes of the Kleinkrieg across the stretch of „no man’s land“ until the beginning of the seventeenth century. Turkish raids were certainly more frequent, but the Christian side repaid them in kind on a number of occasions. The organization of defense on the Slavonian side included the use of the abatis early on. In its decrees of 1562, the Croatian-Slavonian Sabor required the closing by barriers of river passes and the construction of wooden obstacles (resecandae indagines) at appropriate places. From then on, sources regularly refer to the use of abatis (indagines in Latin and Verhack or Waldverhack in German language texts) made by felling the trees in forested areas.

Šume kao izvor prehrane. Uzgoj i trgovina kestenom u Požeštini u 16. i 17. stoljeću

Author(s): Anđelko Vlašić / Language(s): Croatian Publication Year: 0

In the second half of the 16th century, when the Požega area was under Ottoman rule, Hadži Mehmed-aga, a local strongman, was the owner of huge chestnut forests, exporting the nuts to adjacent Ottoman provinces. Numerous chestnut forests could be found throughout the Požega area as well as in the area around Orahovica, hence it is possible that other Ottoman lords cultivated and traded in chestnuts or merely sold them to Hadži Mehmed-aga. Požega was, during the Ottoman rule, a developed trading centre of the Sanjak of Pojega with a rich social life in which the Požega confectioners played a central role. Since the provincial centres such as Požega took the social life of the Ottoman centre as a role model, it can be assumed that the Požega populace also consumed chestnuts and used them in the preparation of their food, the confectioners and their products playing a major role. It is unknown whether this situation from the 16th century continued into the 17th century. It might be possible that the descendants of Hadži Mehmed-aga and other entrepreneurs of the Požega area and the Orahovica area continued to cultivate and export chestnuts; however no records have yet been found. It is likely that the cultivation of chestnuts during the 17th century declined due to the cold during the Little Ice Age. On the other hand, the increasing cultivation of crop plants such as potatoes and corn might have decreased the importance of chestnuts in the nutrition of the Požega area populace. In any event, in conclusion, the Ottoman Požega area of the 16th century, and probably at a later date, was characterized by a lively environment and an abundant everyday life where entrepreneurial-minded individuals knew how to utilize forest potentials, the potentials of chestnuts in particular.

Poredbeno istraživanje Sretna grada Frane Petrića i Kućnika Josipa Stjepana Reljkovića

Author(s): Zlata Živakoviž Kerže / Language(s): Croatian Publication Year: 0

The reflection of the renaissance economic ideas in Slavonia can be traced on certain level in Josip Stjepan Reljković’s Kućnik. The content of that book, which was published in Osijek in 1796, as well as of the Frane Petrić’s La città felice, which was published in 1551, are highly influenced by the economic idea of a human as the social being. In the beginning of Reljković’s Kućnik and in Petrić’s La città felice one can easily found statement that economic wealth is foundation for the development of the village as well as of the city. By analyzing these two books, one can argue that there are various topics on “agrarian-economic relations”. Both authors, Reljković and Petrić, by their writings, wanted to educate new generations in order to accomplish basic idea of social community of which foundation would be assurance of primary human components – soul and body. Therefore, the renaissance economic ideas can easily be seen in providing necessities for human diet. Furthermore, Petrić’s work is some sort of a handbook for agriculture and livestock farming which are “a work hard and full of anxieties, and for them you need strong men who can bear it”, while Reljković teaches and cautions Slavonian peasant what “every kućnik” need to know. Finally, the origin of “instructive literature for farmers”, among which is Kućnik, is in the instructive calendars of Johann Colerus (Johann Zorn 1560-1639), and these type of was spread not only in the German speaking areas but also in the whole Europe, it is obvious that these ideas were present in Slavonia in 18th century and that they were spread by the circulation of Reljković’s book.

Pseudokašteli kraja 15. i prve polovine 16. stoljeća u obrani od Turaka

Author(s): Zorislav Horvat / Language(s): Croatian Publication Year: 0

During the second half of the 15th century, after the main Ottoman raids in the southern parts of Croatia and the eastern parts of Slavonia, the fortifications were constructed either to improve already existed strongholds or as truly new ones. Among those fortification undertakings the very small strongholds were also constructed and their main goal was to prevent the raids of the Ottoman akinci. Those small strongholds were constructed as reduced-in-size Renaissance castles throughout Croatia and Slavonia. They were not the only small strongholds, because various watchtowers (čardak) were also constructed during that period, but it seems that the lesser nobility mostly accepted these small strongholds because they were also suitable for living. Built on a small scale and in the late medieval customs, they actually served their purpose for a while. As it seems, the most important part of these small pseudo-castles was circular defense-tower, which purpose was military as well as residential. The rationality in construction is very obvious. Their ground-plan was reduced to the most similar shapes (circle or roller), while many architectural details were made in wood by local craftsmen. The appearance of that wooden upgrade can be compared to those constructed in Turopolje and Pokuplje and attested in the photographs taken in the late 19th century. The upgrade of the walls was aimed to help the defense, and it was done by wooden consoles, which main purpose was to stop the enemy attack on the walls. Off course, these wooden consoles were useful only in the case of the smaller units of the akinci, but not in the case of larger Ottoman army. In the end, it has to be said that the ground-plans were adapted to the needs of the war strategies in the beginning of the 16th century. Nevertheless, one can argue that in spite of being very small in the proportions, these pseudo-castles were the reflection of the everyday life in Croatia of that time, as well as the results of a quest to find suitable forms of defense.

Arheološka istraživanja Staroga grada Udbine (2008. – 2012.)

Author(s): Tatjana Kolak / Language(s): Croatian Publication Year: 0

On the slightly risen and very easily defended northern edge of the hill on which present day city of Udbina is situated, there is the locality named Gradina (▲ 849). This locality is situated on the very top of the rocky uplift under which the Krbava field is divided in two parts. Eastern part leads to Visuć and Kozja Draga, while the second part leads to south towards Kurjak and Komić. Therefore, the Gradina is situated on the location of the excellent control of those parts of Krbava field. This location was inhabited from the prehistoric period, which was confirmed by the results of the archeological excavations on the northern part of the defense wall, and the excavated items are dated in the Iron Age, that is in the period between the 8th and the 5th century BC. This position was also used in the Roman period what can be confirmed by the founding of two cententionals from the 3rd century. The life on this position was continued in the middle of the 14th century, if not even in the end of the 13th century, what still has to be proven by the excavation of the so far intact layer of the first phases of the building of the stronghold of the counts Kurjakovići. The excavations conducted after 2008 were focused on the upper area of the hill (preliminary named “upper city”) with the circular tower of the diameter of 7m (external diameter of 11m). Bellow of this round tower on its western and northern external side the foundation of even older circular tower was found. This older tower was connected with the inner room with smooth daub flooring. The dimensions of the both towers are almost identical, although the older one is slightly smaller. On the northern part of the older tower the remains of the stairs which had lad to tower were found. Furthermore, several excavation probes were open on the northern slope just beside to the remains of the entrance of the outer wall. Near to the inner part of the wall the remains of the burned beams and huge iron axle pins were found. These founding indicate the possibility of the existence of the wooden console and/or the room for guards. Besides the western part of the entrance of the outer wall the carved remains of fi re place were found also. Furthermore, in order to alleviate the hill slope, the shallow staircase was made of compact boulder. The excavated moveable material is very various and it ranges from numerous construction tools as well as axle pins and staples, to the various weapons and military equipment (rifle barrels, lead bullets, stone cannon bullets, spurs…). Finally, the various ceramic, glass and bronze dishes were also founds, and these artefacts are evidence of the civil life in Udbina castle in the period between the 15th and the 17th century.

Në gjurmë të emigracionit shqiptar në Francë

Author(s): Remzi Përnaska,Luan Rama / Language(s): Albanian Publication Year: 0

Emigracioni shqiptar në Francë është një nga emigracionet e hershme pas atij në Greqi (që në kohën bizantine), në Itali, para dhe pas historisë legjendare të Skënderbeut, ose në kryeqytetin e perandorisë otomane, në Stamboll pas pushtimit të Shqipërisë nga kjo perandori. Gjurmët e para të këtij emigracioni i gjejmë në historinë e shënuar të stratiotëve shqiptarë në fundin e shekullit XV dhe gjatë shekullit XVI, epokë kur ata, të nisur nga Durrësi, Shkodra dhe veçanërisht nga Morea e Greqisë, (nga ku morrën dhe emrin stratiotë), u dyndën drejt Italisë e më pas drejt Francës. Qindra e mijra stratiotë, pasi u shquan në luftërat midis principatave dhe mbretërive të vogla italiane, veçanër-isht nën flamurin e Republikës së Shën Markut, “Serenissima”-s, Venedikut, u vunë në shërbim të mbretërve të Francës, duke krijuar kështu valën e parë të emigracionit shqip-tar në Francë.