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In 1543, when Petru Rareş built the citadel of Soroca stone, the fortification action of the country is practically finished. The citadels will continue to be used roughly in their former appearance until the seventeenth century when they were mostly destroyed, only a few continuing to last even after.
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At the end of the Middle Ages (the late 15th, beginning of 16th century) the community of artisans remained an important part of the market-town population of Alba Iulia. The first data about the guilds in Alba Iulia is from the second half of the 16th century, that means that there was an important connection between the establishment of the of the princely court in Alba Iulia and the development and diversification of the guilds. Goldsmith masters had an important role in the community and the leadership of Alba Iulia. At the beginning of 16th century the Episcopal court hired goldsmith masters, but the role of these artisans has grown in importance at the same time with the establishment of princely court in the market-town. The individual goldsmith masters – members of the goldsmith guild of Cluj – were working for a long time in the princely court, but the growing needs of the court demanded the creation of a new guild. The establishment of this new goldsmith guild led to the conflict between the masters from Cluj and those from Alba Iulia.
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The first scientific treatise on aurora borealis was published by Marcello Squarcialupi, an Italian medical doctor working in the court of the Hungarian Prince of Transylvania. His book, De coeli ardore described the aurora of 10 September 1580 in great detail, providing exact data from his personal observations on the time, direction, shape, colour and variability. He invoked a rational explanation, bringing up only natural causes, and confronted these with the ruling Aristotelian view. The original Latin text describing the aurora is provided with an English translation.
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Towards the end of the 16th century, due to the intense efforts of the Catholic Church the majority of the Western Ukrainian churches decided to recognize the legal supremacy of the Vatican. As a result of this decision, the churches in Ukraine were actually divided into two groups. While churches that accept the Pope's judicial supremacy began to be governed by Papacy, the churches that were in the eastern part of the country and that were also against this agreement allied themselves with the Russian Orthodox Church. This article analyzes the split and decomposition that occurred from the end of the 16th century to the mid of the 20th century in Ukrainian Orthodoxy. On the other hand, it evaluates the reflections of the same decomposition to today’s world. This article also analyzes the policies of the Soviet regime to solve the problem of Greek Catholic Church in Ukraine and the role of the churches in political crisis in Ukraine.
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Temat wymieniony w tytule był już przedmiotem zainteresowania badaczy. Problem ten poruszała Alodia Kawecka-Gryczowa w Ihukanach dawny Polski... omawiając działalność wydawców. Nikt jednak nie policzył ile dokładnie niemieckojęzycznych druków ukazało się w Krakowie w XVI wieku. Praca jest próbą takiego zestawienia i opracowania danych ilustrujących produkcję wydawniczą w tym zakresie. Odpowiada na pytania: kto wytwarzał, ile, w jakich latach i jaki rodzaj piśmiennictwa. Przedstawia również warunki, które umożliwiły druk po niemiecku w stolicy Królestwa Polskiego.
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This article attempts to answer the question regarding the existence and usage of county protocol and county seal in medieval Transylvania. In 1547, Mihály Damokos of Cernatu de Jos/Alsócsernáton, the supposed descendant on the mother’s line of László Bogáti, presented the transcript resuming the contents of an undated document which, allegedly, had been copied by the officials of Turda/Torda county from their protocols in the year 1494, at the request of the Transylvanian voivodes Ladislas Losonci and Bartholomew Drágfi . Data referring to the conveyance of the estates mentioned in the transcript do not appear in any other medieval documents; the transcript is undated and does not mention the names of the issuers but contains a number of typical diplomatic formulae. The sixteenth-century charter which preserved all these earlier documents is not authenticated with a seal. Except for this questionable case, Transylvanian county protocols from this period are not known. Reliable data confirming the keeping of such protocols can be produced only from the second half of the sixteenth century. The original seal of Hunedoara/Hunyad County, allegedly from 1490, is missing at present and it does not appear on any county documents issued before 1542. The impression of this seal is known from nineteenth-century collections of seal impressions and drawings; based on the stylistic features appearing on these drawings and seal impressions, the seal is not from the medieval period.
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The essay explores the development and the history of liber baronatus throughout the first century of the independent Transylvanian state. In order to rectify the errors of preceding scholarly literature and to supplement sound but partial claims, the author primarily assembled – based on the acts of Parliament and on other kinds of sources from a wide spectrum – the inventory of territories and private individuals practicing their privileges of liber baronatus (either granted by the monarch or not). By the analysis of every known case, it is apparent that this concerns domains which, already before the division of the Kingdom of Hungary into three parts, on the one hand, belonged to the monarch, the treasury or the church (Görgény, Fogaras and Gyalu); or, on the other, possessed a special borderland status (Karánsebes, Máramaros). The research has also made it clear that one must separate a full-right liber baronatus (that is, the entirety of immunities of jurisdiction, administration and taxation) from one that uses/abuses one of the immunities listed. The liber baronatus can be considered as a consequence of the actual political situation, not as a result of organic development. Thus, it is not surprising that the recipients of such privileges (considered as alien by the Transylvanian estates of the realm) or their status of liber baronatus usually came to a violent end; and when the troubled times, that is, their heyday, had ended, the liber baronatus of private individuals practically ceased in Transylvania in mid-17th century.
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The diplomatic correspondences which were performed with foreign states hold a significant place within the document corpus from Crimean Khanate that reaches today. Moreover, these diplomatic correspondences which can be considered as the main significant source related to political, social and cultural situation of Crimean Khanate provide us important information about the official written language of Khanate. As it is known, Crimean Khanate is a state sustaining the state tradition of Golden Horde in terms of politics, culture, diplomatics which ruled in the north of the Black Sea. Furthermore, after being connected to Ottoman Empire, the dominancy of Ottoman influence in the diplomatic correspondences of Khanate can be observed. Especially this influence demonstrates itself more clearly in the correspondences that were performed with Ottoman sultans. The official letter that is discused in this article was sent in 1592 by Gazi Giray Khan the Second to the king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and it is of primary importance due to its differences in terms of stylistics within the official correspondences of Crimian Khanate. This letter as the other bitiks sent to foreign states differentiates itself from the general correspondences carried out with the Ottomans in terms of language and style. In the present study, it will be touched on linguistic and stylistic features of the correspondences by emphasizing the bitik’s content importance in Crimean Khanate.
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The author explains the idea of vakuf and the way vakuf developed in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Vakuf has a special role in founding and establishing the educational institutions in Bosnia-Herzegovina during the 16th century, the period which witnessed the biggest expansion of vakuf in this region. During that time, mosques, mekteb, madrassah, tekki, hanikah and libraries were the places where educational process took place, the places of learning. The facts presented in the article clearly show that vakuf produced all the educational institutions of Muslims in Bosnia-Herzegovina during the 16th century, so we can conclude that the role of vakuf in their establishment was essential.
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Imamska služba predstavlja jednu od najčešćih i najredovnijih službi u tvrðavama Bosanskog sandžaka. Bez obzira što ima izrazito vojnički predznak, ona je, po svojoj prirodi, nadilazila vojnièke okvire, posebno u ranom osmanskom razdoblju na ovim prostorima. Zato je možemo okarakterisati kao službu dvojakog karaktera; čisto vojnog za obredoslovne potrebe posada, i za potrebe lokalnog stanovništva - novih muslimana, nastanjenih neposredno uz tvrðavu.
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This article introduces a letter by the Lutheran minister of the Ragainė (Ragnit) Parish Martynas Mažvydas (~1510–1563); this letter was so far unknown to the scholarly community. It was recently discovered in the Secret Archive of the Prussian Cultural Heritage (Geheimes Staatsarchiv Preußischer Kulturbesitz) in Berlin (GStA PK: XX. HA Hist. StA Königsberg, Herzogliches Briefarchiv J 2, Nr. 984, 1553 Januar–März, [1r–1v]). The letter contains no date and no addressee. I would date this letter between November 17, 1552 and April of 1553. The procedures of change in Ragainė Parish lands and the issues of population accommodation assure us that the chronological place of this letter was between the seventh and the eighth letters of Mažvydas that were known till recently. The most probable addressee of the letter was Prussian Duke Albrecht’s preacher and palace adviser, the member of the Semba Consistory Johann Funck (1518–1566): one of the closest men of the Duke’s milieu and the follower of Andreas Osiander (1498–1552). This would help to interpret the reasons as to why Mažvydas had been also considered a follower of Osiander.
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The article covers the development and delineates the main stages of the black-letter or gothic types in printed Lithuanian texts of the sixteenth century in East Prussia (Lithuania Minor) and in Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lithuania Major). Three kinds of the gothic types were used in Lithuanian prints of the sixteenth century in East Prussia: Rotunda, Schwabacher, and Fraktur. Hans Weinreich used Rotunda in his print shop for the first two Lithuanian printed books: Martynas Maþvydas' Catechism (1547) and Hymn of St. Ambrose (1549); still the major typeface used for both books was Schwabacher. We can find Rotunda in Lithuanian, Polish, and Old Prussian early sixteenth century prints; however, from the middle of the sixteenth century it begins to disappear from the Königsberg printers' books. The first Lithuanian text to contain a Fraktur typeface was Maþvydas' The Form of Christening (1559) from Johann Daubmann printshop. Still the main text of the book was set in Schwabacher (like in the other important book by Maþvydas - Christian Hymns, Part 1, 1566); Fraktur along with the Latin Antiqua typeface were used only for certain emphasizing.
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This paper considers the information provided by written sources on the presence of the friars minor at Braşov (Kronstadt / Brassó) in the first quarter of the sixteenth century, attempting to identify the location of their medieval buildings. Up to the beginning of the sixteenth century the town had a single mendicant convent founded by the friars preachers on the north-east corner of the walled area. In 1507, King Vladislav II assigned the former Corpus Christi chapel of the hospital to the Observant Franciscans for the establishment of a house. The place was formally accepted the same year by the Order’s provincial chapter. From the very beginning the friars were faced with the hostility of the parish priest, the main reason consisting, apparently, in the selling of indulgences practiced by the brethren. Not only the large amount of money raised by the friars, who by the spring of 1511 were supposed to gather as many as a thousand florins, but also the chest for money which, according to written sources, was set up in their church for that purpose, as well as the royal protection enjoyed by the brethren suggest that the indulgence concerned the raise of funds for the new St. Peter’s basilica in Rome, initiated by Pope Julius II in 1507. According to a papal bull issued in 1508, the king of Hungary was allowed to keep two thirds from that money for the military expenditures of defense against the Turks. As indicated by the city accounts, the Franciscan friars were eventually expelled in 1529, and their buildings demolished in the summer of the same year. Two entries in the city accounts of 1520 concerning a payment made for the water draining from a house across the Observant friars in the upper suburb, reveal the location of the Franciscan friary outside the western city gate, so-called Porta Corporis Christi or Katharinenthor. Further hints provided by written sources, like the proximity to the city moats and to a fish pond, allow the assumption that the friary was located on the Corpus Christi street, perhaps on a plot of land that after the Reformation served as cemetery, and on which between 1790-94 a Lutheran church was built.
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Trpeći stoljetnu okupaciju Osmanlija, puk Goranaca je prolazio kroz teško razdoblje. Nije to bilo vrijeme lakoga preživljavanja, živjelo se od rada u polju i stočarstva. Uz teror i namete koji su stavljani pred pučane, a oni su bili nepodnošljivi jer Osmanlije nisu imale milosti, svakinovi dan je bio borba za opstanak. Pod tim pritiskom dolazilo je do pojedinačnoga otpora. Jedini organizirani otpor pružali su uskoci sastavljeni većim djelom od momaka koji su u Mletačku Republiku pobjegli iz Goranaca i drugih hercegovačkih krajeva. U takvim uvjetima se puk Goranaca u potrazi za boljim životom, a bježeći od terora, iseljavao.Zbog nepismenosti puk se protiv zaborava borio i usmenom predajom kako bi naraštaji shvaćali težinu življenja u tom vremenu.
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The Reformation meant a crucial event in the history of Europe: not only a renewal in the spiritual life of the Christian church, but also deep cultural and social changes, which had a great impact on the whole life of the Continent. This is why the review Korunk dedicates this issue to this anniversary. The introduction deals with pre-Reformation, the influence of humanist endeavours, the goals of the movement, its main events and representatives, its spread in Europe and influence on Transylvanian cultural life. By laying stress on personal faith, Luther served the strengthening of personal responsibility, and through the idea of the universal ministry he helped the inclusion of lay members in the Church. From a social point of view, this process started the formation of national states in Europe. From a cultural point of view, the influence of the Reformation on the formation of national languages and literatures was most decisive.
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Looking back at the history of the Reformation in Transylvania, we can identify the major influence of Philip Melanchthon on the theology of the Transylvanian reformers. His theological view has changed around the forties of the century, separating him from Luther. His special teaching on the Lord's Supper became the “media sententia”, which was a bridge between Lutheran and Reformed theologians. Transylvanian students have often visited Wittenberg, where Melanchthon has been teaching for decades. When, finally, the influence of the Swiss theology, through Bullinger and Calvin, has been felt in Transylvania, Melanchthon's former students have embraced it, although they have never visited the Swiss universities. The final outcome of this was that the Reformed church came into being in Transylvania.
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Julius Pflug (1499–1564) was a diplomat, politician and bishop, and in all this functions he took care of the unity of the Church in his time which he considered as necessary for salvation. His involvement is acclaimed both by Catholics and Protestants. Pflug worked for the reform of the Church but he was against their split. Today he can be numbered among the leading representatives of theology of mediation of 16th century. In his activities he can neither be marked to the general historical schemata nor to the category of social discipline. The present article presents the biography of Pflug and describes his theological program, especially his efforts for the unity and reform of the Church.
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Seven faïence plates were brought to light from a depth of ca. 170 cm during the excavation conducted in the Víziváros quarter of Esztergom in 2012. The plates had been made in Iznik between 1560 and 1590. It seems likely that the wooden chest containing the plates had been buried by their Turkish owner in 1595, at the time of the siege fought for recapturing the town from the Ottoman Turks.
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There is no point in trying to convince anyone that the publication of historical sources makes very good sense. And there is no need to explain the reasons for publishing historical sources that have preserved in fragmentary form – especially when those sources are scattered in various national (and sometimes foreign) archives. One has to be aware, however, that there should be a great difference between the editing of text sources and sources consisting of figures. And an analysis of this problem is undertaken in the present text, being a critical commentary to the edition of – very scattered – text sources on trade and commercial activities at custom houses located in provinces of the sixteenth-century Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
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