GYMNASIUMS IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF BANAT (1867-1914)

Author(s): Áron Kovács / Language(s): English Issue: 83/2016

The article gives an overview of the development of the Gymnasium education in Banat, in the interval 1867-1914. The Gymnasium in the abovementioned period was one of the most important institutions, which – besides the education – played a crucial role in the formation of the middle-class. The article begins with the detailed analysis of the following: legal political framework of the Gymnasiums, the system of Gymnasiums in Banat, the schools, the teachers, the students, the curriculum, political life in the schools, student movements and offschool activities, charity societies in the schools.

Организации и обществено-политически изяви на българските студенти в чужбина (1903–1912)

Author(s): Ivan Tanchev / Language(s): Bulgarian Issue: 1-2/2013

The article broadly addresses the organizational development of Bulgarian studentship abroad and its social and political activities during the period 1903–1912, in order to detect their inherent characteristics on the basis of abundant and diverse sources – archival documents and publications in periodicals of that time as well as studies of other authors on the subject. The evidence reveals mainly that the organizational structures of Bulgarian students abroad became more multifaceted. Some of the previously created societies definitively established themselves as spokespersons for their members and authoritative representatives of Bulgaria in the respective academic and cultural community, while others temporarily weakened their activities or waned to some degree. Among the newly established organizations two societies stood out with a good start: “Brotherhood” in Fribourg, Switzerland, and “Rodina”in Berlin, but they had yet to develop and gain prestige. There was also Bulgarian participation in multinational students’ formations based on the principle of federalism – mainly in its “south Slav” outline. A great achievement was that in 1909 the societies in the large Swiss university centers integrated into “Union of Bulgarian student societies “Brotherhood” in Switzerland.” Social and political activities of the Bulgarian students abroad during the period were primarily on matters of internal political nature among which the university crisis of 1907-1908 stands out. Ideological opposition in the ranks of Bulgarian studentship remained.As far as a common position on one issue or another was formed, it referred almost exclusively to certain events with foreign political character such as the excesses over the Bulgarian population in Macedonia.

СПАСТИ СОЮЗНИКА: ПЛАНЫ ПОМОЩИ СЕРБИИ В СТРАТЕГИИ РОССИИ ОСЕНЬЮ 1915 Г.

Author(s): Andrey Yurevich Pavlov / Language(s): Russian Issue: 2/2016

In the autumn of 1915, the powers of the Entente, including Russia, were not able to provide sufficiently effective assistance to Serbia. They were unable to save the country from occupation, even though in early 1915 the allies considered the possibility of having to take urgent measures to rescue Serbia from a difficult situation. The Russian command supported the plan to send troops to Thessaloniki, but did not consider it necessary to use Russian soldiers for that purpose. Only due to pressurefrom allies, the Russians decided to send a small detachment to the Balkans. At that time, the hope of having a psychological effect on the Bulgarian army by adding Russian men to the Allied forces was still viable. The Russian command, however, considered very different options as a means of providing aid to Serbia. There were no less then five ideas: a strike against Austro-Hungarian forces in Galicia, a joint offensive with the Romanian army against Bulgaria, an attack on Bulgaria through Romanian territory, but without the participation of the Romanian army, a landing of Russian troops in the Bulgarian port of Varna and a landing of Russian troops near the Turkish ports on the Black Sea followed by an advance toward Bosphorus. Specifically, for these actions, Russia immediately formed a new VII army. Furthermore, the Chief of Staff of the Supreme Commander General Alekseyev suggested that allies radically rethink their war strategy and deliver powerful blows to Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary on the Salonika and Russian Southwestern fronts. For various reasons, not a single one of the above-mentioned plans was realized.

Românii americani în anii neutralităţii României (1914-1916)

Author(s): Constantin I. Stan / Language(s): Romanian Issue: 03/2004

The present study reveals the political activity of the Romanian Americans in the period of Romania’s neutrality, at the beginning of World War I (1914-1916). The author throws into relief the patriotical attitude of the leaders of the community constituted by the Romanians residing in the United States of America, shepherded by the Eastern Orthodox priest Ioan Podea. Father Podea refused the political compromise with the Austro-Hungarian authorities, overlooking the invitation expressed by the Austro-Hungarian Consulate in Cleveland, which aimed to determine him to support the Austro-Hungarian army. From this perspective, the author underlines the fact that the Romanian Americans born in Transylvania, Banat, and Bucovina were anxiously waiting for the active involvement of Romania in World War I.

Vizuális percepciók a Nagy Háborúról a hatalom szűrőin keresztül

Author(s): Ágnes Tamás / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 3/2014

In my paper I attempt to study a popular genre of the time: the illustrations of World War I published in satirical magazines. After briefly discussing the peculiarities of the sources, the press regulation of the era and the distinctive features of propaganda, I describe the style and the motif structure of pictures that slipped through the dense web of censorship and were deemed suitable for propaganda purposes. The drawings were published in satirical magazines in Vienna (Figaro), Berlin (Kladderadatsch) and Budapest (Borsszem Jankó). Before analyzing the symbol system of the caricatures, I describe the elements of a special type of pictures (“genre pictures” from the front line) used exclusively in Borsszem Jankó. Looking at the symbols and the propaganda tools in the caricatures we can conclude that their creators, walking in the footsteps of their 19th-century predecessors, used well-known symbols in their drawings over and over again, such as characters from ancient or German myths or Biblical stories. Caricaturists could visually degrade the enemy not only by altering the myths, but also by the distorted depictions of heraldic beasts and of persons or leading politicians representing the hostile countries. Another means of debasement was emphasizing how uncivilized and uncultivated the Entente countries were, as well as depicting how they oppressed smaller nations. I also mention a topic which cropped up exclusively in Borsszem Jankó: in the early stages of the war references were made to the 1848–1849 war of independence in connection with Serbia and Russia, as then it seemed that the time for a revenge had come. Finally, I discuss the territorial claims of the emerging new states as expressed in the caricatures.

Csáth Géza tragédiája

Author(s): Eszter-Edina Molnár / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 3/2014

Mostly practiced by psychologists, psychobiography is the historical application of any explicit, scientific and systematic psychology to life stories, but in such works the dominance of psychological approach usually means that less attention is paid to the historical-social environment. By shifting scientific focus, it is possible to construct a biography that is not influenced by the current psychological theories, yet uses a psychological approach, while focusing on the soul and the personality. In other words, we can construct a personality history that consequently does not free itself from historical-social embeddedness. As psychobiographies rarely study the whole lifespan of an individual but rather just a certain period of his life and try to answer a single central question, this personality history paper asks the following questions. What caused the tragedy of writer and psychologist Géza Csáth? What role did World War I, the historical background to the suicide play in this? Building the narrative from the perspective of the war is unsuitable for answering the question, so to avoid one-sidedness we have to take into consideration more factors simultaneously. Accordingly, I make an attempt to answer the questions on the basis of the system of Csáth’s medical book published in 1912, The Psychic Mechanism of Mental Disorders. I study each area of the self (sexual, health, financial, moral, racial, religious), this way drawing attention to the possible harmful consequences of the psychoanalytic compulsion to perform self-analysis. To answer the question, however, it is necessary to take into account the factors that shape the personality as well, that is the previous milestones in his life. As a result, in our dynamic, double cross-section we can see the personality in its synchronicity and its constantly changing form at the same time.

Csoda és társadalom

Author(s): András Jobbágyi / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 2/2015

University of Iasi and its external connections. Since its beginnings (1860) up to the First World War (1914)

Author(s): Claudiu-Lucian Topor / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2010

The study presents the first modern Rumanian university in Iasi, its links with the European universities and its development from 1860 to 1914.

Географические карты в борьбе с противником накануне и в годы Первой мировой войны

Author(s): Vladimir Ilyich Bayandin,Andrey Vladimirovitch Zaporozhchenko / Language(s): Russian Issue: 3/2016

The article discusses the role and significance of different types of domestic and foreign printed propaganda used by the European powers during the World War I. The authors emphasize the key role of Great Britain in information warfare against Germany and the response of the German command in order to neutralize British influence on feelings and outlook of their population. The examples of impact of different printed propaganda materials on the general public in the frontline area and in the rear of the enemy are provided. The main attention is paid to significant emphasis the combatant countries placed on creating and distributing vivid map caricatures, easily understandable by broad population and playing an important role in shaping enemy’s public opinion. The review and the analysis of some most widespread map caricatures of the World War I are presented. The methods applied to the Russian prisoners of war held in German camps are outlined.

The Italian Parliament: between Intervention and Neutrality

Author(s): Carmen Trimarchi / Language(s): English Issue: XII/2015

That which began in December of 1914 and ended in March of 1915 was a very interesting moment in the history of the Italian parliament and nation. In order to understand what happened afterward, this paper analyses what happened during that period, to examine the acts and tendencies of both politicians and political parties, and to consider the reasons behind the decisions that were made.

Les effets de la législation de guerre sur le système juridique italien (1915-1919)

Author(s): Patrizia DE SALVO / Language(s): French Issue: XII/2015

The general aim of this research is to study the relationship between the Executive power and the Parliament during World War I and in particular, to analyse the effects of war legislation on the Italian legal system. It was observed that both as an immediate effect of the war and by way of the social necessities that were its direct consequence, the Italian executive was forced to “invade” the field of private law, thus generating measures on the basis of which changes in different legal institutions would follow. A part of this legislation was destined to persist even after the end of the war, as it was only the beginning of a series of changes that were already underway in society, and for which the conflict was to be only the triggering effect.

Stefan Burián, ein ungarischer gemeinsamer Minister der Habsburgermonarchie im Spiegel der österreichischen Memoirenliteratur

Author(s): Tamás Goreczky / Language(s): German Issue: 1/2009

Career of a Common minister, Stephen Burián, in the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy.

An Open Letter from a Hungarian to President Wilson concerning the Integrity of Hungary. A Forgotten Pamphlet of the Territorial Integrity Propaganda. I. Part

Author(s): Péter András Tóth,Lajos Pallos / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2009

The authors has written a study about the Central European policy of the United States in two parts. In the first one they present Wilson's political activity in Central Europe.

An Open Letter from a Hungarian to President Wilson concerning the Integrity of Hungary. A Forgotten Pamphlet of the Territorial Integrity Propaganda. II. Part

Author(s): Péter András Tóth,Lajos Pallos / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2009

The second part of the study about the American policy in Central Europe presents the Hungarian Territorial Integrity League. This league published the open letter to Wilson.

The spirit of 1914 in Austria-Hungary

Author(s): Mark Cornwall / Language(s): English Issue: 2/2015

This article studies the »spirit of 1914« in the Habsburg monarchy, the myth that an enthusiastic mood prevailed across the empire during the first summer of the Great War when troops were sent off against the Serbian and Russian enemies. It seeks to explain how far this mood was spontaneous or directed from above by the state authorities, and finds that both interacted with each other as mobilization occurred. It also seeks through a range of voices to show the actual diversity of emotion in these early weeks of hostilities. Many young men enlisted in order to pursue an adventure, many imperial patriots or nationalists viewed the war as an opportunity for some »rebirth« for their cause; the press was largely unanimous in suggesting popular support for the war. However, underneath this façade many individuals were as much fearful as hopeful, particularly the older generation. The strict censorship of news from the start of the war obscured these negative voices, but we find them in diaries and memoirs of the time. These also suggest that the early excitement was short-lived. Many soldiers quickly experienced the horror of war, especially in the east, and felt changed utterly by the trauma. On the home front, the shock came more slowly as casualty lists and refugees surfaced. By October 1914 the initial expectations, encapsulated in the early »spirit«, were already waning. The state had to face the prospect of total war, where its ability to protect its population was fatally put to the test.

Roberto Todero, I fanti del Litorale austriaco al fronte orientale 1914-1918 ...

Author(s): Ivan Vogrič / Language(s): Slovenian Issue: 1/2015

Pavlina Bobič, Vojna in vera. Katoliška cerkev na Slovenskem 1914-1918 ...

Author(s): Urška Strle / Language(s): Slovenian Issue: 1/2015

Vprašanje nezakonitega izseljevanja vojaških obveznikov v Avstriji na predvečer prve svetovne vojne

Author(s): Aleksej Kalc / Language(s): Slovenian Issue: 2/2014

The following contribution focuses on the stringent police measures implemented in Austria in March 1914 against the illegal emigration of military conscripts. The measures took place in the context of the unsuccessful long-term efforts to regulate the issue of emigration and its many aspects, of which the military circles were most concerned by the increasingly frequent absence of military conscripts. A stricter system of control at the borders and next to the emigration routes within the state territory was introduced with the aim of checking the military situation of the emigrants and intercepting those who did not have suitable permits to leave the state. Besides the police force the surveillance service also included the customs administration and railroad personnel. The measures did not introduce any new restrictions with regard to the emigration of military conscripts, but they did implement the existing ones more strictly. Nevertheless they resulted in the opposition within the government and caused political protests, as they questioned the constitutional principle of the freedom of emigration and indicated that the state was careless in its attitude towards the economic needs of the population. The article is based on the documentary dossier about the introduction and effects of the stricter system of controlling the emigration from the archive collection of the Government in Trieste.

Pium desiderium dr. Vekoslava Kukovca leta 1924

Author(s): Jurij Perovšek / Language(s): Slovenian Issue: 2/2014

The following discussion presents the initiative of one of the leading Slovenian liberal politicians in the first decades of the 20th century, Dr Vekoslav Kukovec, in the beginning of August 1924: that the liberals should withdraw from the ruthless political struggle against the Catholic side. When the leadership of the Slovenian liberal politics refused this initiative, Kukovec resigned. After this unsuccessful attempt at convincing the liberals to support the ideological appeasement in Slovenia, Kukovec’s efforts resulted in a debate between the liberal and Catholic side, in which both sides expressed the characteristic contemporaneous ideological rigidity of the cultural struggle. The “pium desiderium” — pious hope of Vekoslav Kukovec to put an end to this struggle did not come to pass. We can only speculate about how the Catholic side would have reacted had the liberal side offered ideological and political appeasement that Kukovec argued for. However, it is certain that by not doing so liberalism lost an opportunity to denounce the ideological intolerance and intellectual violence in Slovenia and thus exempt itself from the historical responsibility for the consequences. However, none of this happened. The Slovenian ideological complexes lived on and attained further painful dimensions.

Ekonomske sankcije Društva narodov

Author(s): Marjan Malešič / Language(s): Slovenian Issue: 2/2014

The territory of contemporary Slovenia, as a part of other state formations, has been an object of international community sanctions on several occasions in the last century. Our analysis encompasses two cases, in which the League of Nations introduced sanctions, namely threat of sanctions and the initiation of procedure against Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in 1921 due to its violation of state border with Albania set in 1913 and its military incursions on Albanian territory, and economic sanctions against Kingdom of Italy due to its military aggression against Abyssinia in 1935. The former case was a success because sanctions did have an effect and they brought about a solution of the problem even before they were formally introduced whereas the latter was a failure because it didn’t stop military aggression. The reasons for the success in the case of Kingdom of SCS are above all in less ambitious objective, in concordance of the League of Nations member states and in vulnerability of the object state, whereas the reasons for the failure of the Italian case were in inconformity of objectives and means, the former being too ambitious compared to the means applied, in the lack of concordance and decisiveness of the League of Nations member states, in non-comprehensiveness of economic sanctions, in the role of third parties and in nationalistic response of Italy to the sanctions.