Starčevićeva hrvatska stranka prava (Stranka prava) i izbori za zagrebačko gradsko zastupstvo od 1904. do 1917. godine

Author(s): Mislav Gabelica / Language(s): Croatian Issue: 3/2016

In this article the author strives to answer the question, what were the reasons for the political collapse of Starčević’s Croatian Party of Right (Party of Right), which resulted in the party being merely a mute observer of the political events in Banal Croatia in late 1918, when the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was being formed. In order to answer this question, the author has analysed the political influence of this party in the city of Zagreb, which was – according to extant historiographical research – the party’s initial stronghold and, according to the beliefs of a part of the political public in Croatia at that time, a key influence in the party’s expansion throughout Banal Croatia due to its role as the spiritual and economic centre of Croatia. Therefore, the author assumed that the reasons for the political collapse of this party should also be sought in the city of Zagreb. The author examined the political power of Starčević’s Croatian Party of Right (Party of Right) in Zagreb based on its representation in the city council in the period from 1904 till 1917, when the last elections for the Zagreb city council during the existence of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy were held. The relationship between the political power of this party in Zagreb and its power on a national level is expressed through a comparison of Starčević’s Croatian Party of Right (Party of Right) representation in the Zagreb city council with its representation in the Croatian Parliament. On the basis of the facts presented in this article, such as the political rise of Starčević’s Croatian Party of Right (Party of Right) in Zagreb that preceded its rise on a national level and that this party, like Starčević’s Party of Right – which was formed in 1909 from its dissidents – remained primarily a party of Zagreb and its surrounding area (the counties of Zagreb, Varaždin, and Bjelovar-Križevci) throughout the whole period, the author proves that the political situation in Zagreb had a crucial influence on the political power of Starčević’s Croatian Party of Right (Party of Right) in Banal Croatia. Therefore, the waning of the party’s political influence in Zagreb was followed by its weakening on a national level. The reason for this loss of political influence,first in Zagreb and later throughout Croatia, stems from rifts in the party in 1908 and 1913, while the final collapse of the party – together with a final rift – was caused by World War I, when the party’s supporters were conscripted in greater numbers than those of other parties and thus distanced from the political events taking place at the home front.

Bethlen István szerelmei

Author(s): Ignác Romsics / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 12/2016

Count István Bethlen was one of the most outstanding Hungarian politicians in the 20th century. From the moment he was elected to Parliament in 1901 until the end of WW II, “making politics” was an integral part of his life. Between 1901 and 1918 he was a regional politician with peculiarly Transylvanian traits, from 1921 to 1931 he was Prime Minister of Hungary; and subsequently, until 1944, the leading representative of the anti-Nazi and pro-Western political orientation. At the end of 1944 he was captured and in 1945 transported by the Russians to Moscow where he died in 1946. Ignác Romsics, who is the author of the first comprehensive and authoritative biography on Bethlen, deals in his essay with an aspect of the politician’s private life: his liaisons of love. Although he is very sceptical about the gossip according to which the young Bethlen had an illegitimate child before his marriage of 1901, he does confirm that from the late 1920s the politician really had a sweetheart: Countess Andor Pál Széchenyi born Baroness Mária Szegedy-Ensch. In spite of their long lasting and known attachment Bethlen did not divorce. After some years his wife, Countess Margit Bethlen accepted the situation and she also found a companion. The article is concluded by citations from Bethlen's letters sent to his lover from the Russian house arrest.

A caporettói áttörés és előzményei

Author(s): Tibor Balla / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 02/2017

The author of the article presents the preliminaries of the Battle of Caporetto in the year of 1917 on the Italian Front; the preparations of the Central Powers for the offensive against the Italian army and the establishment of the German 14th Army; the allied Austro-Hungarian and German troops’ advance to attack; as well as the opposing Italian, Austro-Hungarian and German forces. The reader may learn about the events of the breakthrough at Caporetto on October 24, 1917 and the details of the operations to the reaching of the Piave River by the Central Powers’ forces on November 10. The author summarizes the Italian (340,000) and the Austro-Hungarian and German losses (70,000), and emphasizes the military historical significance and the results of the Battle of Caporetto, which was the largest victory of the Central Powers on the Italian front during the First World War

100 години от Охридско-Дебърското въстание. Съст. Александър Гребенаров, Георги Н. Георгиев. Изд. Институт за исторически изследвания – БАН, Държавна агенция „Архиви“, Македонски научен институт – София, Български културен клуб – Скопие, С., 2014, 31

Author(s): Jaroslav Rubaha / Language(s): Bulgarian Issue: 4/2015

Международна научна конференция „Първата световна война на Балканите и встъпването на България в нея (1914–1915)“

Author(s): Volodya Milachkov / Language(s): Bulgarian Issue: 4/2015

Generalul Henri M. Berthelot, comandant al armatelor aliate de la Dunăre în 1918

Author(s): Constantin I. Stan / Language(s): Romanian Issue: 1/2006

The author emphasises the military merits of the great friend of Romanian people, General Henry M. Berthelot, the commander-in-chief of the Danube allied armies which, in 1918, fought against the German army, as well as the tribute and the gratitude of the Romanian people to the French people and its representatives. The article deals with some events representing significant historical moments of the traditional military and cultural cooperation between France and Romania.

Czech Soldiers during the Great War (1914–1918)

Author(s): Ladislav Hladký / Language(s): English Issue: 3/2016

The goal of this article is to objectively assess the conduct of Czech soldiers during the First World War. In the past, this issue was, for various ideological reasons, greatly oversimpliϐied. German national propaganda portrayed Czech soldiers fighting in the uniforms of the Austro-Hungarian Army in the period 1914–1918 as a very unreliable element, owing to their Slavic sentiments. However, after 1918 the Czechoslovak Republic also adopted a very critical position toward these soldiers, as the main credit for the founding of the independent state was ascribed to the so-called legionnaires, i.e. to the soldiers who fought on the side of the Allied states. In this article the author reflects upon the Czech historiographic production on the First World War at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries and attempts to present a balanced (non-national) perspective on the subject.

Obraz bezpieczeństwa społecznego w I wojnie światowej - spojrzenie elit na przykładzie księżnej Marii Zdzisławowej Lubomirskiej

Author(s): Monika Wąs / Language(s): Polish Issue: IX/2015

Księżna Maria z Branickich Lubomirska żyła na przełomie XIX i XX wieku. Była żoną księcia Zdzisława Lubomirskiego, prawnika, ziemianina, konserwatywnego polityka, przewodniczący Centralnego Komitetu Obywatelskiego. Jako osoba oczytana, zdecydowała się spisać ważne wydarzenia z okresu I wojny światowej oraz towarzyszące im emocje. Sztambuch został napisany w klasycznej formie, np. księżna używała narracji pierwszoosobowej. Na kartach pamiętnika zawarła informacje dotyczące dyplomacji, społeczeństwa, ale nade wszystko okrucieństwa towarzyszącego wojnie. Pisała o sukcesach męża oraz wykonywała portrety najbardziej wpływowych ludzi żyjących wówczas w Warszawie i Galicji. Księżna nie myślała o publikacji wspomnień. Jednak pierwsza publikacja miała miejsce w roku 1997. Lektura pamiętników księżnej Lubomirskiej umożliwia poznanie okresu I wojny światowej z innej, zapewne bliższej czytelnikowi, perspektywy.

Stalna postavka radova Egona Šilea u Muzeju Leopold u Beču

Author(s): Katarina Kostandinović / Language(s): Serbian Issue: 2/2015

Permanent exhibition of art by Egon Schiele in Leopold Museum in Museums Quartier, Vienna, represents the largest collection of Schiele’s work in the world. The collector, doctor Rudolph Leopold (1925-2010) was collecting the works of Austrian art of the first half of 20th century. Behind the representative work of Viennese Modern Art, the permanent exhibition also includes the works of applied art of Vienna’s Workshops (Wiener Werkstätte). The collection of doctor Rudolph Leopold today is compiled of over five thousand items and also includes European art of the 19th century, African, Asian art, etc. In the new exhibition of the collection of Leopold Museum, “Egon Schiele, Self-Abandonment And Self-Assertion” (Egon Schiele, Selbsthingabe und Selbstbehauptung), Schiele’s opus is represented in a way that follows several important events in his life. The phases of Schiele’s development as an artist are explained through several of his capital works. From klimtesque-early phase, to the act phase through the act phase which is marked by deformity in anatomy representation and exploring the psychological potential of the act, with the final phase being the one in which Schiele showed the maturity of his work. His self-portraits are arranged according to the above mentioned phases of his development. At the same time, they could be seen as the process of persistent introspection of the artist, which sometimes exceeds to the obsession of one’s own character. Current presentation of the permanent exhibition of Egon Schiele’s work represents his creative opus through determinants of his private life which undoubtedly left a trace in his work. Emphasizing the artist’s personality which gave his work the main character, explicit dedication and introspection, and furthermore, examining tumultuary inner life through the image medium, which Schiele was recognizable for, was inevitable. The documentation of Leopold Museum, along with the accompanying notes, photographs, and letters of the artist himself, enabled a visitor an insight into the artist’s life and creative work in an articulate and extensive manner.

Opis Pljevalja, Kolašina, Bijelog Polja i Berana iz 1910. godine

Author(s): Adnan Pepić / Language(s): Bosnian Issue: 51-52/2011

U dnevnom glasilu Tanin, za koje je pisao i objavljivao svoje impresije o gradovima koje je posjećivao, Ahmet Šerif je opisao gradove koji su se nalazili u oblasti Sandžaka, a danas su u granicama Crne Gore. Od gradova koje je posjetio 1910. godine su Pljevlja, Šahovići, Bijelo Polje, Berane i Rožaje. U ovom radu se daju opisi pomenutih gradova izuzimajući opis Rožaja (Trgovište), koji će posebno biti obrađen u nekom drugom, posebnom radu. Ovi opisi su izuzetno značajni jer daju korisne podatke o stanju pomenutih gradova u vrijeme osjetne slabosti osmanske države, odnosno pred njeno propadanje u ovom dijelu Balkana. U vrijeme posjete obilazio je najznačajnije osmanske institucije u tim gradovima, ali i razgovarao sa lokalnim predstavnicima vlasti. Posjećivao je i obrazovne ustanove gdje je u nekim prilikama prisustvovao ispitivanjima učenika. Zahvaljujući njegovim podacima dobija se uvid u obrazovanje u našim krajevima u vrijeme posljednjih godina osmanske vladavine. S druge strane doznaje se kakav je bio odnos prema obrazovanju lokalnog muslimanskog stanovništva. Mnoga njegova opažanja su veoma zanimljiva i korisna. Upravo iz tih razloga se ta njegova opažanja i prezentiraju u ovom radu u nadi da će pomoći u sagledavanju prošlosti gore pomenutih gradova.

GOVOR ORHANA ŠABANOVIĆA

Author(s): Orhan Šahmanović / Language(s): Bosnian Issue: 55-56/2013

Uvaženi reise Islamske zajednice u Crnoj Gori, uvaženi poslanici, uvaženi eminencije, dobrodošli u opštinu Plav na današnji dan, dan sjećanja na nevino stradale Bošnjake i Albance 1912. i 1913. godine. 1912, i 1913, godina, godine su Balkanskih ratova. Kao i u svakom drugom ratu na Balkanu, i tada su potekle rijeke krvi, počinjeni su mnogi zločini. Počinjeni su zločini nad muslimanskim stanovništvom Plava i Gusinja.

GENERATOR GENOCIDA

Author(s): Šemsudin Hadrović / Language(s): Bosnian Issue: 55-56/2013

Govoriti o zločinu i pokrštavanju u Plavu i Gusinju 1912-1913. godine nije moguće a ne referisati se na Gorski vijenac P.P. Njegoša kao djelo koje je u jednoj svojoj dimenziji generiralo i još uvijek generira poriv na zločin i genocid. U tom smislu se nameće potreba novog čitanja i revizije pristupa Gorskom vijencu, jer veći dio ovog djela odavno ne korespondira sa vremenom u kojem živimo. Da je autor bio u pravu kada se prije desetak godina referisao na ovaj drugi „genocidni“ dio Gorskog vijenca, potvrđuje i činjenica da je na proslavi 100-te godišnjice rođenja Njegoša, dakle još prije jednog stoljeća, data „preporuka“ da se u školama ne čitaju oni dijelovi Gorskog vijenca koji vrijeđaju „naše Muhamedance“. (Uskoro će biti objavljen rečeni dokument).

POKRŠTAVANJA VRŠENA 1912-13. god. – AKTI KRIVOVJERJA

Author(s): Stevo Vučinić / Language(s): Bosnian Issue: 55-56/2013

Prije nego počnem izlaganje moje teme ukratko ću se očitovati, uopšte, o zločinima pokrštavanja i ubistvima Plavljana i Gusinjana 1912- 13. godine. Ovom prigodom, kao Crnogorac osjećam se obaveznim da se o tome načelno iskažem, ali, i ne samo o tome.

POKRŠTAVANJE KATOLIKA SA POSEBNIM OSVRTOM NA „AFERU PALIĆ“

Author(s): Jasmina Rastoder / Language(s): Bosnian Issue: 55-56/2013

Pokrštavanje kao anticivilizacijska pojava u balkanskim ratovima, prepoznata kroz nasilje radi zastrašivanja pripadnika drugih vera nije zaobišla ni katolike i katoličku zajednicu. Po brutalnosti kojom je sprovođen, ovaj čin se nije razlikovao od onog provođenog nad muslimanima. Takođe se može zaključiti da nije bilo ni razlike u konačnom cilju eliminacije svih inoveraca sa prostora dobijenih u balkanskom ratu. Međutim, ipak, naravno, postoje bitne razlike između pokrštavanja muslimana i katolika. Prvo, katolici su takođe hrišćani, te se u užem smislu ovdje ne može govoriti o nasilnoj promeni vere. Ovde je nasilje bilo usmereno prema onim hrišćanima koji su u smislu duhovne jurisdikcije pripadali zapadnoj (katoličkoj) hrišćanskoj crkvi. Dakle, radilo se o nasilju u cilju promene pripadnosti crkvi. Politički i teološki motivi ove pojave su dublje smešteni u kompleksan odnos između katoličanstva i pravoslavlja i politički odnos zapadnih sila (pre svega Austro-Ugarske carevine) i balkanskih zemalja. Drugo, pokrštavanje katolika nije bilo tako masovno kao kod muslimana zato što je njihov broj bio značajno manji. Ali i ne manji razlog je bio u tome što se radilo o dobro organizovanoj verskoj zajednici koja je imala snažne zaštitnike, medijatore i propagandiste sposobne da zaustave proces nasilnog preimenovanja i spremnih da zaštite svoje istovernike.

VАSOJEVIĆI PREMА PLАVU I GUSINJU

Author(s): Marijan Premović / Language(s): Bosnian Issue: 55-56/2013

Rаt nа Bаlkаnu 1912/13. godine imаo je ogromаn znаčаj u borbi Crne Gore zа njeno oslobođenje i ujedinjenje. Crnogorskа istoriogrаfijа decenijamа se veomа uspješno bаvi balkаnskim rаtovimа, а ukupni rezultаti u dosаdаšnjim proučаvаnjimа omogućuju dа se steknu znаčаjnа sаznаnjа. O Vаsojevićimа i njihovom učešću u Bаlkаnskim rаtovimа bаvilo se u svojim studijаmа više аutorа: Bаtrić Mаrjаnović, Vаsojevićki glаvаri – nekoliko portretа -, Podgoricа 1929; Rаdoslаv-Jаgoš Vešović, Pleme Vаsojevići, Sаrаjevo 1935; Miodrаg Joksimović, Nаrodnа vojskа Vаsojevićа (1858–1918), Andrijevicа 1997, Novo Delević, Crnogorsko pleme Vаsojevići, Beogrаd 2009 i dr. Zаnimljivo je istаći dа u ovim studijаmа pitаnje odnosа Vаsojevićа premа Plаvu i Gusinju nigdje se ne spominje. Očigledno ovi аutori prećutkuju i svjesno zаobilаze dogаđаje iz 1912/13. godine nа prostoru plаvsko-gusinjske kotline, što je nаrаvno podsticаj zа novа istrаživаnjа i donošenje novih sudovа.

Utrka bez pobjednika

Author(s): Ivan Tučić / Language(s): Croatian Issue: 1+2/2014

Obilježavanje stogodišnjice početka Prvog svjetskog rata ili Velikog rata pobudilo je širu društvenu javnost da se iznova progovori o njegovim uzrocima i posljedicama i njihovim interpretacijama. O problemu odgovornosti pojedinih naroda i vlada za izbijanje Prvog svjetskog rata intenzivno se raspravljalo još za vrijeme samoga sukoba, ali i sljedećih dvadeset poratnih godina. Polemike oko rata nastavljene su i u razdoblju mira nakon rata, jer su pobjedničke sile nametale svoje interpretacije rata.

ISELJAVANJE PODGORIČKIH MUSLIMANA U BERANE U TOKU 1910. I 1911.

Author(s): Predrag Vukić / Language(s): Bosnian Issue: 35-36/2006

Nakon međunarodnog priznanja Crne Gore na Berlinskom kongresu 1878. i pripajanja Podgorice Knjaževini Crnoj Gori u januaru naredne godine, u razdoblju do Prvog balkanskog rata 1912. odvijalo se iseljavanje mnogih muslimanskih porodica iz Podgorice u evropsku ili azijsku Tursku. Proces iseljavanja ponekad je bio masovniji, a često i individualan. Arhivska građa u Državnom arhivu na Cetinju daje nam obilje podataka o iseljavanju podgoričkih muslimana u periodu od 1879-1912. Budući da je odlukama Berlinskog kongresa Berane ostalo pod administrativnom turskom upravom, manji broj podgoričkih muslimana iseljavao se u Berane. U aprilu 1910. iz Podgorice su se preselili u Berane Smail-beg Osmanagić i Usen Cucović sa svojim porodicama. Krajem 1911. u Berane se preselio i Kaplan D. Osmanagić iz Podgorice sa porodicom. Dokumenta o njihovom iseljenju pronašli smo u Državnom arhivu na Cetinju, u arhivskim spisima Pasoškog odjeljenja Ministarstva inostranih djela Knjaževine (Kraljevine) Crne Gore za 1910. i 1911. Njihov cjelokupan sadržaj sada publikujemo prvi put. U

O NEKIM KONTROVERZAMA U SKADARSKOJ KRIZI 1912-13. GODINE

Author(s): Radoje Pajović / Language(s): Bosnian Issue: 59-60/2014

Prvi balkanski rat 1912/13. godine kao što je poznato, označio je kraj viševjekovne vladavine Osmanskog carstva u Evropi. Prethodnica tome bilo je stvaranje balkanskog saveza između Srbije, Crne Gore, Grčke i Bugarske s ciljem – oslobođenje Balkana od Turaka – Osmanlija. Crna Gora imala je cilj da zaokruži životni prostor, koji su predstavljali Skadar sa okolinom i sjeverni dio današnje Crne Gore (Berane, Bijelo Polje, Mojkovac, Pljevlja, Plav, Gusinje, Rožaje, a po mogućnosti i žitnica Metohije). Za taj plan Crna Gora je imala na raspolaganju opštinu od oko 40.000 vojnika, svrstanih u tri odreda od čega su dva odreda, a to je predstavljalo glavninu Crnogorske vojske, bila angažovana za oslobođenje Skadra.

ВПЛИВ МИСТЕЦЬКИХ ШКІЛ НА ФОРМУВАННЯ ХУДОЖНЬОГО АВАНГАРДУ В УКРАЇНІ: 10-30–і роки ХХ століття

Author(s): Olga Karpenko / Language(s): Ukrainian Issue: 4/2014

Analyzing the avant-garde art, researchers emphasize its revolutionary, dissimilarity with previous trends. The article deals with the analysis of the peculiarities of teaching in Kiev's drawing school of Nicolas Murashko and the methodological analysis of the teaching system in Anthony Azhbe and Shimon Kholloshy's school. These schools had an affect on the worldview and skills of famous Ukrainian and Russian avant-garde artists.The researchers of the avant-garde art O. Fedoruk and V. Markade distinguish two periods of the Ukranian avant-garde. The first wave of avant-garde lasted from 1907 till 1914. During that period the Ukrainian artists adopted artistic achievements of the European masters. The second one lasted from 1917 till 1934. It was characterized by a consciousness and the national identity of Ukrainian avant-garde and the ideological provision on the top of its development.We begin our research from the analysis of the native art schools, which have influenced the education of future pioneers of Ukrainian avant-garde. So touching upon the art situation in Kiev at the beginning of the twentieth century, we have to underline the prominent role of Kiev's drawing school and its founder Nicolas Murashko. After the graduating of the St. Petersburg Art Academy Nicolas Murashko got the idea of founding an art school in Kiev. There was not any higher educational institutions that why many talented artists from Ukraine went to St. Petersburg to receive higher education such as K. Trutovsky, L. Zhemchuzhnikov, A. Slastion, E. Agathon, M. Berkos, M. Fedorov, A. Murashko, S. Vasilkovsky, M. Pimonenko, P. Levchenko, V. Orlovkuy etc. Some Ukrainian artists studied at the Moscow's Painting School, Sculpture and Architecture, such as S. Svyatoslavskyy, F. Krichevsky, M. Zuk, A. Archipenko. The researcher L. Savytska states that at the beginning of the twentieth century only three institutions study the artist. They were the Kiev's art colledge, Lavra icon-painting School and School typography. Kiev Art School followed the traditions of Nicolas Myrashko’s school. There were three main art instituions in Kharkov. They were Raevskaya M. Ivanova’s private drawing school, E. Agafonov’s studio"Blue lily" ("Blue Lily") and A. Groth and E. Steinberg studio.N. Murashko was an extremely thoughtful master and a talented teacher. He closely followed the modern artistic life and analyzed the artistic tendencies in the sociaty. So he critisized the academic system of teaching for its idealism and support the idea of the changable realist art.The important feature of Murashko’ school studing was the development of the artistic imagination by drawing on impressions or memories. Murashko borrowed it from Nikolai Kuznetsov, who was often abroad and brought out such exercise from there. Murashko felt that the system of getting skills had to be changed. The popularity of realistic art, the variability of the effects of light, color and impressionistic discoveries, changed the system of art learning. The cease transformed into the real art. Later, Alexander Bogomazov who had learnt N. Murashko’s technique, called the academism as the pernicious teaching method in his report at the National Congress of Artists in Kiev 1918.A. Ashbe and S. Holloshy’s Munich school played the great role in forming Russian and Ukrainian avant-garde because many native artists improved their professional skills in foreign art schools, studios, academies. Its system of teaching had the innovations, which would be used by many brilliant artists of the twentieth century. Anthony Ashbe taught the representatives of realistic school such as D. Kardovskyy, Russian impressionist I. Grabar and futureabstractionist W. Kandinsky. Such wide variety of artistic trends tells us about his flexible system of teaching and his perfect technique. The researches of A. Ashbe’s school, N. Molyeva and E. Belyutin said that the basis of A. Ashbe’s creative method was the orientation on the transfering the most characteristic features of the model, finding the tools to portray nature without imposing any canons that constrained the artist’s vision. ".So, we can highlight some key points that distinguish N. Murashko, A. Ashbe and S. Holloshy’s schools from the academic system, such as the attention on the study of the living model and the lack of stable canons. The last one saves a student from the copying and helps to find their own way in art. A student has not to draw the reality, but to describe his/her feelings. This new principle, entitled "Art of feeling" (Malevich’s term) is used by the Impressionists and later avant-gardists.

Jogszerű kampánykiadás vagy választási visszaélés?

Author(s): Péter Gerhard / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 67/2017

The study sheds light on some of the contradictions in the perceptions of electoral fraud in the Age of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy through a civil suit conducted in 1910 at the Royal Court of Budapest. In the focus of the lawsuit stood the dividing line between legitimate and illegitimate campaign expenditure and the three verdicts clearly suggest that contemporary judiciary practice had no unambiguous stance concerning the issue. Budapest attorney Manó Ság was the plaintiff, and Protestant pastor József Irsay the defendant. Both held Independence Party mandates in the house of representatives in the electoral cycle ending in 1910. The subject matter of the case was 4000 crowns, which Ság demanded to be paid by Irsay as recompense for the electioneering he had undertaken for the pastor. This means that although the case was not one of typical electoral fraud, the judges still had to present their views about questions of electoral arbitration because the question was whether it was legal to hand over sums of money to canvassers for campaign purposes. While the court represented one standpoint in this question, the court of appeal decided the opposite, and finally the supreme court ruled the original court decision. This process clearly indicates the Hungarian legal system’s uncertainty surrounding the legality of campaign expenditures and the fact that they were unable to establish a uniform judicial practice in this question. The study presents the contemporary regulations as well as the proceedings of the trials to demonstrate how these discrepancies between legal standards and everyday judicial practice manifested in the arbitration process of the judges.