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Gustul amar al libertății
Interview with Jurgen Habermas and Adam Michnik by Adam Krzeminsk.
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Interview with Jurgen Habermas and Adam Michnik by Adam Krzeminsk.
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Sources discussing archival activities in Poland in the 20th century do not give due significance to the systemic conditions governing the operation of archives. Similarly understated is the relationship between the law and regulations concerning the protection of national heritage on the one hand and archival standards on the other. The present article does not aim to make any final judgements in this regard but to point to the challenges in the research which are significant for a comprehensive discussion of archival science. In case of Poland, the activity of archives was initially regulated primarily by the legislation and practices resulting from the first Constitution of Poland, proclaimed in 1921, after the country had regained independence. As a state based on the system of liberal democracy, Poland was adopting progressive standards, which in case of archival sciences provided an appropriate level of protection to archival heritage and ensured conditions beneficial to its growth. After World War II, former regulations were gradually abandoned. This continued until 1983, which saw the implementation of the State Archives Act remaining in force until the present day. The law has since been amended several dozen times in order to adjust the operation of archives to the changing systemic, political, and social conditions. This process has illuminated significant issues which still affect archives and archivists.
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The article discusses the issue of the distribution and structure of archival funds in Polish state archives in the period between the restoration of Poland’s independence and the outbreak of World War II. The author lists the basic factors which determined the final shape of the archival network and structure of archival funds in the period under discussion, including factors independent from the management of the State Archives Department, such as financial struggles, lack of sufficient space, and staffing issues. Established under the decree of 7 February 1919, the state archive network overseen by the State Archives Department did not comprised a varying number of facilities over the course of the interwar period – from 11 facilities right after the war to 21 archives in 1924 to the final number of 16 archives (five of which were located in Warsaw) in the 1930s. Designed according to historical criteria, the archival network of the Second Polish Republic was not distributed evenly and did not correspond to the administrative divisions in the country. Some provinces, mostly those located in the east of Poland, did not have their branches of state archives. The author also points to significant changes introduced to the structure of archival funds in Polish state archives in the interwar period, motivated by such factors as the dissolution of certain archival facilities, recovery of archival materials, and collection of contemporary records produced by the offices and institutions of the Second Polish Republic. The article also provides data on the size and structure of the resources held in individual archives and the overall state archival funds in the interwar period.
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The network of state archives in Poland started to form in 1919, although first historical archives in Polish lands had been established as early as the 19th century. The organisation of state archives in Poland after World War II was influenced by pertinent legislation, the strategy of increasing the density of the archival network, and administrative reforms introduced in the country. As a result, the turn of the 1960s saw the state archive network comprising the largest number of units in history. After 1989, the network of state archives did not undergo any major transformations. There were only sporadic cases of changing the names of some units. Several state archives lost their autonomous status and became branches, while other underwent the opposite changes. The most significant trend has been the liquidation of remote branches of state archives and their agencies, which has resulted in a gradual decrease in network density. Certain branches were dissolved due to financial hardships and resulting difficulty in securing premises to house them. A certain role was also played by staffing and organisational issues. The dissolution of remote branches was an attempt to improve the efficiency of the management of archives in economic, spatial, and personal terms. Following the liquidation of remote branches and agencies, their archival resources were transferred and assembled in a single place. For the local communities of towns and counties, this resulted in limited access to archival materials. There were some attempts to combat the trend of remote archive branches closing down, taken by local municipal governments, regional bodies of state administration, deputies to the Sejm, media, and cultural and scientific organisations. Unfortunately, the state archive network in the Third Republic of Poland was not developed according to a conscious, planned, and consistent strategy of the Chief Directors of State Archives or in line with any well-thought-out conceptual framework. The state archive network in Poland has been effectively shaped exclusively by the ongoing economic and spatial conditions of these institutions.
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The archives of the central government administration hold the most important part of contemporary state archival resources, both “public” and classified. In order to ensure the external and internal security of the Polish state, it is necessary to implement an effective system of managing classified information, documentation, and archival materials in both traditional and electronic formats. Classified archives are an important part of this system. Their operation also determines the preservation of archival resources for the future.
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It is difficult to unequivocally determine the significance of the Chmara Archive in the research of the Commonwealth in the 18th century and the territory of the Russian Partition in the 19th century. The records are undoubtedly worth exploring by anyone looking to analyse political ties in the aforementioned eras. The archive certainly holds greatest value for the study of the last years of Augustus III’s reign, the period of the rule of Stanisław August Poniatowski, and the turn of the 20th century. Referring to the introduction, it bears emphasising that the collection is of considerable importance to the research of the mentality and identity of provincial elites in the period of Old Poland and the first half of the 19th century. Taking a broader look at these issues helps shed a new light on various smaller threads. The archive includes many materials concerning issues related to the economies of noble estates, for example escapes of peasants or floating goods to Königsberg. In terms of geography, the Chmara Archive may prove useful in studying the public life of the Minsk Province and later the Minsk Governorate. While the records are of marginal importance for the 18th century and the politics of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, some materials, for example the accounts of J.N. Chęcki, clarify certain issues or help look at seemingly obvious matters from a new perspective.
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The aim of the paper is to discuss the development process of archival networks in Spanish autonomous communities. The starting point for the deliberations is the analysis of the 1978 Constitution, which divided the country into 17 autonomous regions and provided a legal basis for transferring archive management competencies to local government authorities. The subsequent section of the paper discusses the first attempts to establish an archival network and the most significant challenges encountered in the process. The section also seeks to analyse the structure of the network. What follows is a section focusing on various management models implemented by individual communities. The following models have been distinguished: cultural, administrative, and national. Cited as an example of the latter is the archival network of Catalonia, which the paper discusses in more detail. The argument concludes with an analysis of factors which shaped the process of developing regional archival networks in Spain and their current structure. The paper has been written on the basis of Spanish legislation adopted by central and local authorities and available secondary sources.
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The article discusses the archival network of the Principality of Liechtenstein. The network consists of the National Archives (Liechtensteinisches Landesarchiv), municipal archives, and archives of public law entities. Operating outside the network is the House Archive of the Reigning Princes von und zu Liechtenstein based in Vienna (Hausarchiv der Regierenden Fürsten von und zu Liechtenstein), which stores the most important materials concerning the history of the princely family, illustrating its achievements and deeds in politics and economy. Liechtenstein’s archival network has been, to a significant degree, tailored to meet the legal needs of the ruling princely house. Its resources include the most important records documenting connections with other royal houses and the rulers’ political and social roles. The process of collecting archival materials in Liechtenstein has been closely tied with the legal needs of both the reigning house and the inhabitants of the country. It has focused primarily on administrative centres and the judiciary. The archives of Liechtenstein include a variety of finding aids which are of great importance in archival searches. It can also be argued that Liechtenstein’s archival network has been structured based on the experiences of Austria and other German countries.
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The article, based on archival and historiographical materials, examines the transformation of the Lithuanian archival system implemented by the Soviet government when archives were subordinated to political goals. The authority restricted public access to the historical material stored in the archives after transferring them to the Special Funds. The author focuses on the development of the Secret Funds of the Central State Archives of Lithuania in the 1970–1980’s and discusses the experiences of Lithuanian historians in using the material stored in the Secret Funds in their professional work.
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The basic goal of the present paper is to discover the factors which shape the network of federal archives in Russia. There are plenty such factors to list. One of the basic ones are transformations in the political system and territorial changes undergone by the Russian state. These are visible in the manner of both naming and establishing individual archival units. In 1992, the adjective “central” was removed from the names of archives which had operated in the Soviet era. Only the adjective “state” remained. Its presence signalled that the resources stored in a particular archive were significant from the point of view of Russian statehood and considered an important and unifying element for the nations of the Russian Federation. Another decision taken was to cease to name archives after historical events shaping the communist movement. This concerned primarily the 1917 October Revolution. The Archive of the October Revolution, Supreme Organs of State Power was renamed to the State Archive of the Russian Federation. The architects of the archival network merged the funds of central USSR archives and the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. Such was the case of the Archive of the Russian Federation. One of the archives which enriched its resources was the Central Archive of the Russian Soviet Socialist Republic. Federal archives were structured according to historical, material, and chronological criteria. Among them there is a group of archives collecting documents produced by central institutions, interior administration, and other administration divisions, including party administration – with the exception of military administration, whose documentation is stored in what may be called general administration archives. Forming part of this particular group are five units: State Archive of the Russian Federation, Russian State Historical Archive, Russian State Archive of Historical Records, Russian State Archive of Contemporary History, Russian State Archive of Social and Political History. The centres established in the 1990s for the purpose of collecting resources assembled from party material, contemporary and historical documentation, and military records, were given the rank of archives in 1999. The Centre for the Storage of Modern Records was given the rank of the Russian State Archive of Contemporary History, while the Russian Centre for the Storage and Analysis of the Records of Youth Organisations became the foundation of the Russian State Archive of Social and Political History. The Centre for the Storage of Historical-Documentation Collections was incorporated into the Russian State Military Archive. The first decade of political and social transformations went hand in hand with rapid changes in the organisation of archives. The network of federal archives does not encompass the records of Russian diplomatic services held in the Archive of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Russian Academy of Sciences also has a separate archival network. The aforementioned Russian State Military Archive became the third unit in the network of federal archives which stores army records. The network includes a separate group of archives collecting materials produced by military institutions. Forming its part are the Russian State Archive of the Navy, Russian State Military Archive, and Russian State Military Historical Archive. Another group of archives was formed and organised according to the format criterion. It comprises institutions storing photographs, recordings, and film footage. This archive group includes the Russian State Documentary Film and Photo Archive, the Russian State Phonographic Archive. There are two archives storing a specific type of records – technical documentation. These are the Russian State Archive in Samara and the Russian State Archive of Scientific and Technical Documents. Literature and art were assigned to a separate archive – the Russian State Archive of Literature and Art. The network of federal archives also includes an economic archive – the Russian State Archive of Economics. The final shape of the network was also largely determined by territorial factors, as in the case of the Russian State Historical Archive of the Far East. Records from the Far East, primarily documents of the General Governorate of Eastern Siberia in Tomsk, were separated and deemed an object requiring an autonomous archive. A separate archive was established to store records produced by the central administration of the Russian state in the period when Petersburg was the capital city. These documents are held in the Russian State Historical Archive. This decision was most likely motivated by the rule of limited territorial pertinence. Another consequence of systemic transformations was also the foundation of archives storing historical and contemporary records of institutions which were dissolved as a consequence of this process. These newly established units came to hold, among others, the records of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and its youth organisation. The function of the historical archives of the CPSU and concomitantly of the unit researching and analysing the party history was performed by the Institute of Marxism and Leninism. The records of the Institute came to form the foundation of the Archive of Contemporary History. In 1999, documentation centres were merged and transformed into archives. In case of some of these units, only the name was changed from “centre” to “archive,” while others were incorporated into previously existing archives. The archival network was formed on the basis of various criteria, which included both the contents and the formats of the records. The process of founding new archives followed the rule of provenance. Various steps were taken to ensure that archival fonds were not divided. However, it bears emphasising that in case of Russian archives, an archival fonds may consist in both records of a single institution or records of one of its organisational units, for instance the files of a department of a certain ministry. Changing the location of the seat of the Russian State Historical Archive of the Far East turned out to be a complicated endeavour. Not all files from the transferred archive reached their destination. The network of federal archives includes a group of documents considered particularly valuable and unique. Consequently, a number of federal archives have been assigned the status of institutions holding rare records of particular importance. These are the State Archive of the Russian Federation, Russian State Archive of Historical Records, Russian State Historical Archive, Russian State Military Historical Archive. The federal archival network encompasses records from all historical eras. Its structure has been shaped by such factors as various formats of recording information, types of documents, wealth of contents resulting from the large territorial span of Russia and later the USSR, and the importance of these states on the international forum. The information stored in the archival network constitutes an important source for researching the history of Russia and the world.
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Following the formation of a camp system and the first deportations, the authorities of the Independent State of Croatia decided to create a formal legal basis for it in order to direct “undesirable and dangerous” persons according to the established order to “re-education” in concentration and work camps. Though restrictions to freedom and forced labour had been mentioned in previous legal practice, it was only after the proclamation of legal decrees at the end of 1941 that a formal legal basis for deportation to camps came into existence. In conjunction with the formation of the legal basis, the Ustaša authorities also completed the structuring of a repressive apparatus which in part had to carry out the decrees directed primarily against the followers of the Partisan movement and members of marginal societal groups. Prior to and alongside this, using an extra-institutional path, the Ustaša authorities carried out measures against the majority of Croatian and Bosnian Jews who were sent off to camps without any legal basis in the laws of the Independent State of Croatia. On the basis of sources and literature the author presents the issue of restricting freedoms and the dispatch of persons to forced labour in concentration and work camps in the Independent State of Croatia, as well as the structure of the repressive apparatus responsible for the execution of the formal-legal basis, but the work does not discuss the issue of incarceration.
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This work attempts to show the plight of the civilian population in the territory of the Independent State of Croatia in concentration camps on the basis of the partially revised list “Žrtve rata 1941-1945” (Victims of War, 1941- 1945) first published in 1964. On the basis of results obtained from a revision of the list according to current trends in the analysis of the data, the number of deaths that occurred in the camps is calculated somewhere between 173,800 and 184,800. An overview is made which analyzes the territorial origins of the victims, their year of death, the national structure (58.03% Serbs, 16.09% Jews, 12.83% Roma, 6.97% Croats, 0.95% Muslims, and 5.13% members of other or unknown origins), responsibility for deaths (the perpetrators of crimes – 85.25% Independent State of Croatia, 14.28% Germany, and 0.46% Italy), the sites where the most numerous executions were carried out are identified, and all of this is shown against the larger context of the general suffering that took place in the Independent State of Croatia and Yugoslavia.
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With the establishment of the Independent State of Croatia, Vlado Singer and Stjepan Rubinić became high ranking officials of the security and police apparatus of the state. Due to their actions both fell afoul of their superiors and were removed from their positions. They served roughly the same amount of time at the concentration camps in Jasenovac and Stara Gradiška. In distincti-on to Singer, who was killed at the Stara Gradiška camp, Rubinić was released after spending a year in the camp. After his release from the camp he did not formally belong to the Ustaša movement, but he was allowed to conduct busi-ness with Jewish mercantile houses. Following the collapse of the Independent State of Croatia, he withdrew toward Austria, where he lived for some years, after which time information about him becomes unreliable. It is assumed that he lives out of the public eye, as a well-situated man, either in South America or Australia.
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In September of 1943 the Kingdom of Italy capitulated and German army entered Italian annexed parts of Dalmatia. The Independent State of Croatia (ISC) was able to return these areas under its control, after they were ceded to Italy in May of 1941. The German army still had to secure the coastal area from Tito’s partisans and possible landing of the Western Allies. In 1944 the Ger-mans prepared plans for the defense and fortification of the eastern Adriatic coast. One of the security measures of the German army was the evacuation of able bodied men from Dalmatian islands because they were considered to be possible hostile and prone to join the partisans and help the Western Allies in the case of their landing in that areas. The Germans evacuation of islands and some parts of the Dalmatian coast, as well as German use of local population for forced labor caused panic and scare among people. This put ISC authorities in a difficult situation - Germans were their allies and they depended on their support and presence of a German army. At the same time ISC representatives, especially those in Dalmatia understood that they need to win the hearts and minds of the population in that area, especially after the period of Italian presence and due to the fact that many Dalmatians joined Tito’s partisans. They realized that German repressive measures would disrupt such attempts and often protested against German evacuation and deportations of local population. But such protests were mostly disregarded by Germans who could impose their own decisions on the much weaker and sometimes powerless ISC authorities.
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One of the most acute problems of the war economy in National Socialist Germany was a lack of labour in industry and agriculture. Though Nazi planners through a series of legal measures paid close attention to a solution to this matter even prior to the outbreak of the war, it was reopened following the failure of the Wehrmacht on the Eastern Front. Taking workers out of factories and fields opened the question of labour supply in these areas vital to the war economy. Shortages in labour supply could only be made up by forced recruitment from occupied countries. Serbia was not an exception to this rule in occupied Europe. To achieve a more effective exploitation of labour supply, the Nazis introduced their own labour laws into occupied territory to drive production. Since they lacked adequate numbers of personnel in their occupation apparatus, they engaged the domestic administration to achieve the desired objectives. The population of Serbia was subjected to all the forms of forced labour which the Nazis applied to other occupied territories, from new labour laws to outright slave labour. The largest portion of forced labourers worked for German needs on the territory of Serbia itself, while the number of workers in Germany never exceeded 30,000-35,000 at one time. This represented less than half the number of workers that the occupation authorities planned to send to work outside of Serbia.
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In the last phases of the Second World War masses of people started to withdraw toward British positions in Carinthia. The majority of the refugees were captured before they crossed the Austrian border. A portion of those people that made it to Carinthia were handed over to the Yugoslavian Army by British forces. Their columns were turned back for the long march home, referred to as the “Death Marches” Passing through Slovenia these columns made it to Croatia. Behind them remained a large number of camps and mass graves. Using the extensive literature and available documents this article analyzes the camps formed on the march through Croatia (Mirkovci, Orosav-lje, Samobor, Jankomir, Kanal, Prečko, Maksimir, Karlovac, Čemernica, Sisak, Bjelovar, Lupoglav, “Danica” in Koprivnica, Osijek, Velika Pisanica, Krndija, Požega, Vinkovci). Numerous eye witness accounts tell of the daily experience of life in the camps – for the most part strict control of the camps, many citations, the sorting of inmates and the fear of being taken to the unknown, poor diet and unhygienic conditions, lack of medical supplies, and the general precariousness of one’s existence. Many available sources clearly demonstrate the strict control exercised by the newly established postwar regime over the territory of Croatia, or Yugoslavia.
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This work reviews the judicial process directed against Catholic priests in Osijek in the period immediately following the Second World War. The main characteristics of Church-State relations at the time of these trials is described in the introductory part of this article, and a short review of criminal law in postwar Yugoslavia is provided, which was the legal basis by which the regime carried out its revenge against people who did not share its political views. In the next part of the work the author presents six individual cases substantiated by available archival documents, of which the authentic transcripts of the court are particularly interesting.
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Author analyzes misdemeanors and crimes of younger minors, contained in criminal cases from the archive fund of the Royal court table in Osijek, which were conducted by the District court in Osijek from 1930 to 1945. Moreover, author has attempted to determine the patterns in which the social environment and family, proprietary, and other conditions have affected the offenders, and relate them to specific causes and motives. Similarly, the society’s response to misdemeanors and crimes is investigated through the analysis of sanctions and other measures were taken against underage offenders.
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In paper, based on the archival material and contemporary press, various types of crime are presented and numerical data on the status of general criminality in the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) is provided. According to statistical data published by the police authorities of NDH, the status of criminality in NDH was satisfactory, especially considering the contemporary war circumstances. Difficult economic circumstances were a convenient environment for commission of criminal offenses. Thefts, frauds, robberies, and murder for personal gain were often motivated by fear for one’s own existence.
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The author analyzes letters written by prisoners, detainees, and their relatives to authorities of the communist Yugoslavia. Today, these letters are being kept as archival material, and the author has analyzed the material of several archives in Belgrade and Zagreb. By using content and discourse analysis, it is revealed who were the authors of these letters, what was being asked for in the letters and in which way, and to which addresses were the authors reaching out to, as well as what was the attitude of authorities towards individuals addressing them in letters. With this paper, the author endeavors to present values of the aforementioned historical sources for researching social history and history of everyday life of the communist Yugoslavia, as well as the functionality of the historical-anthropological approach to research of history of the second half of the 20th century. In the appendix, the author provides several letters, mostly in the form of facsimiles.
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