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Today, there are about 4,300 religions and religious denominations in the world, each with its own Divinity. In the empires of the future, which will be the empires of the mind, the changes will be particularly great in terms of religions.
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The aim of this study is to discuss the functional value of tawakkul in terms of individual psychology in the light of scientific studies. As known, tawakkul is an important concept on which the Qur'an and Sunnah have emphasized. In this regard, tawakkul, which is a religious value, is expected to have an important function for the individual in his work and actions. However, it is seen that tawakkul, which is fostered by religious sources, is far from its functional value that has been expressed in time. This situation often brings with it the questioning of this concept. Because this concept, which is based on religion, is expected to have a positive function for the individual, but on the contrary, it is known that it produces the opposite function for some individuals. It is possible to say that many factors are effective in the fact that tawakkul has such a function. However, due to the limitations of the study, it is not possible to discuss all these factors here. However, it can be stated that a false perception of destiny is a very strong factor in the development of individuals' belief in tawakkul contrary to the essence of religion. Thus, it is possible to say that the false understanding of tawakkul, which is also expressed as a kind of fatalism, develops and takes root. It is almost inevitable for this situation to lead the individual to a behavior contrary to the religious teachings, neglecting the principle of after fulfilling the reasons, one of the most important elements of tawakkul. Despite this, it is known that tawakkul still has many functional values in accordance with the essence of religion for the believer. In this context, five basic functions of tawakkul were examined in this study. In this context, first, the subject of Tawakkul as the Manifestation of Confidence in Allah was examined. At this point, it is emphasized that religion, which has the function of satisfying the individual emotionally, should cooperate with trust, as well as with many emotions in the emotional spectrum, in order to produce this function. It is possible to say that tawakkul has a very close relationship with this feeling because of the strong relationship between trust and faith. Because the feeling of trust in Allah creates expectations based on trust in people, it is possible to say that the level of trust of the individual who is fed by this feeling will also increase. The second, the function of tawakkul was examined under the title of Tawakkul as a Positive and Cognitive Re-evaluation Tool. In this context, it is emphasized that it is inevitable for a person to encounter positive life events as well as negative life events as a necessity of his existence. Afterward, it has been mentioned that this bipolar structure of existence causes the person to experience negative emotions as well as positive ones. At this point, after subjecting the situation to a positive and cognitive re-evaluation process, the individual who has tawakkul takes the strength from the verse "God only obliges a person to do what he can do" (al-Baqara, 2/286) and transfers the result to Allah, is likely to do so. The third, the function of tawakkul is discussed under the title of Tawakkul as a Means of Making Sense of the Background of Events. In this context, the attitude that an individual will adopt if the work he has entrusted to God outwardly produces a result against him: "It may be that something is good for you, but you do not tolerate it. It also happens that when something is bad for you, you love it. Allah knows, you do not know” (al-Baqara, 2/216). Accordingly, thanks to the awareness of tawakkul fostered by this and similar verses, it becomes very easy for the individual to accept negative situations without questioning too much and thus to make sense of the background of the event. The fourth, the function of tawakkul is examined under the title of Tawakkul as a Means of Spiritual Development. In this context, it has been pointed out that tawakkul has an important function for the spiritual development that religion has presented to him on the basis of meaning and purpose, aside from escaping from the troubles experienced by the individual. The last, the function of tawakkul mentioned in the study was examined in the context of Tawakkul as a Mental Shelter. Accordingly, tawakkul, which means an individual's relyıng on Allah, is an individual's action with the awareness that the only being with power and strength is Allah. Thus, an individual who is aware of his own helplessness is expected to rely on Allah, which he sees as a safe mental shelter, by trusting in Allah in all matters, by showing sincere consent and submission to His will. Based on all these, it is aimed that this study, which was made by making use of primary and secondary sources, contributes to the understanding of the functional value of tawakkul, which is fostered by religious belief.
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This study is focused on the understanding of being, which would be considered original for Nicholas of Cusa's age, who is one of the important characters of the 15th century's philosophy, and on the concept of God comprising pantheistic themes. This concept harboring the fundamental effects of the Platonic philosophy tradition is reflected in the works of Cusa, which he created during his academic life and under Papa's protectorate, and affected the religious comprehension of his age. Considering his philosophic and theological ideas, Cusa played an important role in the differentiation of the scientific and philosophic approach, which was under the dominance of the Scholastic view. His conception of God can be considered as an effort to consider God, man and the universe from a shared perspective. In this perspective, there are three elements, which are conceived in divine unity. These three elements can be expressed as follows: God, as an absolute being and the active part in this relationship; the universe, as the place and space of the divine appearance, and Jesus, who makes the relationship between God-universe and man possible with his personality, which is the only one of its kind. The dialectical method, which gave the characteristics to the thoughts of Cusa, reveals itself clearly in his views about the Maximum (el Máximo) and Minimum (el Mínimo) concepts, which he used for the definition of God. These concepts, which are used to serve as an infrastructure for all intellectual efforts realized about God, are handled in a kind of unity in the sense of potential and formal comprehension of Maximum and Minimum. Cusa was for a middle way based on a absolving approach attributed to God for the explanation of his relationship with the universe. That is, Cusa, who views these attributes as necessary in terms of the reality of religious life, always gives a sense of the sensitivity of knowing the attributes as a limited activity that can only take place on the basis of created things. If affirmative names are to be attributed to God, they must be made in terms of His relationship to creatures. In Cusa's cosmology, the universe is understood as containing an infinite multitude of infinitely different motions, each revolving at its center and bound both by its relation to a common cause and by its participation in the universal order. Thus, Cusa based its cosmology on a metaphysical doctrine instead of physics and in this way adopted not a world-centered but a God-centered view of the universe. In this system, God is accepted as an essence penetrating the universe and virtually dispersing into it, and therefore, it is emphasized that there is no relationship of superiority between the elements comprising the universe because they get their origin and existence from a divine essence. On the other hand, the question of how everything can be understood as a manifestation of a single infinite Form, despite the existence of different levels of possibility, finds the answer in the fact that infinite Form can only be achieved finitely. In this respect, although the universe is limitless in one sense and infinite in its unique kind, it can be defined as neither finite nor infinite. Consequently, the universe is both finite and infinite, as it enters the field of being about the infinity of God, and thus to His infinity, which encapsulates the whole possibility of existence and does not hold this possibility in itself. In this way, each created one compromises a finite infinity or created divinity in respect of its existing status. In Cusa's philosophy, Jesus Christ has a very critical function in respect of the foundation of the system in a correct way. The ontological connection between God, who is the Absolute Maximum, and the universe, which is the Contracted Maximum is established through him. Spontaneously, the structure composed of the opposites, which are compromised by the Absolute Maximum and revealed in the universe, comes to the front as a principle of harmony and equality. Such a conceptualization of the being brings with it the idea of a need for a being, which compromises the past and the last without being tied to temporal processes and provides the order and stability of the universe that is not suitable for unity and simplicity by its nature. So, Jesus takes his place in this system as the medium of the relationship between God and the realm. In this article, we attempted to evaluate the ideas of Nicholas Cusa on the God-universe relationship based on the literature, which he created through his almost 25-year-long academic carrier, with a descriptive approach. The main objective of this study is our conviction that the comparisons made between different views developed in belief circles, which have to face particularly this problem about the Godrealm relation, which is one of the main topics of the theological thought system, may reveal meaningful outcomes about the nature of the religious thought and belief. Here we will attempt to trace this effect through the thought of Cusa, which brings a new interpretation to the philosophical tradition to which it adheres, with philosophical and mystical implications.
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As a result of scientific and technological developments in the world, life expectancy is increasing and mortality rates are decreasing. Consequently, the general population in the world is increasing rapidly. A significant portion of the growing population is composed of the elderly. Looking at the population projection, it is predicted that the elderly population in the world will be 16% in 2050, while this rate is predicted to be 18% in Turkey. Similar to the aging of the population in the world, the elderly population is increasing in our country, but this increase is happening faster than in other countries. This situation necessitates a close examination of the issue of aging. Biological, psychological and social changes that the aging individual undergoes over time brings with it various problems. If we look at these changes; one of the visible changes in the aging process is physical changes. Aging and wear in the biological structure cause loss of strength, decrease in physical abilities, and various health problems such as diabetes, hypertension and Alzheimer's in elderly individuals. However, changes in brain structure and cognitive functions lead to weakening of perception, attention, memory and problem-solving abilities of elderly individuals. In the social context, changes occur in the social role and status of the elderly individual, such as retirement, loss of spouse and close friends, and change in parental role. All these changes that occur in the aging process cause elderly individuals to experience various psycho-social problems such as loneliness, hopelessness and depression. Changes in the aging process push aging individuals to think more about the current situation, to make sense of the situations they encounter, and to seek different ways to cope with it. In this process, religion and various belief systems emerge as an important factor. While religious belief makes sense of the difficulties faced by older individuals, it can also positively affect the coping process. Both the meaning of old age and the efforts to cope with the problems encountered in old age make religion an important position in old age. Thus, in this study, studies on religion and aging abroad were examined in order to determine the current situation regarding the studies on religion and aging and to set an example for the studies to be done in our country. The aim of this study, which is designed in the type of bibliometric analysis, one of the qualitative research patterns, is to reveal the subject trends of the studies on religion and aging abroad and to determine the characteristics of the researches in terms of methodology in order to set an example for the studies to be done in our country. The universe of the research consists of all studies on religion and aging conducted abroad. In this study, in which the criterion sampling technique was used, the purposeful sampling method, the sample of the research consists of 205 studies published between the years of 2011-2019 in the independent publication Journal of Religion, Spirituality and Aging (JRSA). After determining the journal to be used in this research, where data was collected through document review, a total of 205 articles were examined by reading the abstracts of the articles published in the journal, and 2 articles for which the desired data could not be obtained were eliminated. The frequencies, percentages and cross tables of the data obtained from the remaining 203 articles were obtained using the Pasw Statistics 20 package program. The findings of the research were obtained using bibliometric analysis and content analysis. In this study, the findings were obtained by analyzing the subject, year, method, sample, data collection technique and the number of citations of the studies conducted between the years of 2011-2019 in the Journal of Religion, Spirituality and Aging. In the analysis conducted to determine the subject distribution of the articles published in the Journal of Religion, Spirituality and Aging between the years of 2011-2019, it was determined that most (26; 12.8%) studies were directly researched spirituality and most cited (81; 17%) topic was spirituality. Considering the subject of spiritual care and other subjects related to spirituality, it can be said that the literature on religion and aging is spiritually oriented. Considering the methods used in religion and aging studies, 35.5% (n= 72) of the studies were qualitative, It is seen that 23.6% (n= 48) were done with quantitative method, .4% (n=11) were done with mixed method and 35.5% were theoretical studies. When the measurement tools are examined, it is seen that the questionnaire technique (41%, n=54) is used the most, and the interview technique (33%, n= 43) is used in the second place. It was determined that the most versatile sampling (47%, n=61) and sub-categories were used as the sampling type. When we evaluate the subject tendency and methodological data according to the findings obtained as a result of this study, it can be said that the tendency in religion and aging studies has focused on spirituality, in other words, the "spiritualism" of the literature has increased. The fact that qualitative studies are in the majority in terms of method and the data obtained from the field in general are more than theoretical studies are promising in terms of understanding the functions performed by religion and spirituality in the aging process. In the theoretical context, it can be said that the theoretical backgrounds in aging studies should be strengthened, the data obtained should be integrated with the theories and studies should be carried out to form theory. It is recommended for experts who are interested in the field where field studies prepared by making theoretical foundations in future studies should be increased. It is essential to develop religiosity, spirituality and spiritual well-being scales specific to the elderly of our country in studies to be carried out on the subject.
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This present study sets out the vision of Saint Sophrony Sakharov regarding how the christians can heal from depression and despair. Father Sophrony claims that the despair that today’ s man is experiencing is due to unbelief in the resurrection.
More...![Reshaping [Your] Reality. [1] A cognitive perspective of how religion changes the life-view with special consideration to traumatic events](/api/image/getissuecoverimage?id=picture_2022_67806.jpg)
Just as there are people who are born with certain sensory limits or altered sensitivity (+/-) and perceive the outside world differently, so there are several ‘stimuli’ that alter our subjective perception (+/-) of reality (re)giving a different/distorted image of it, the religious faith being one of those. This role is played, for example, by a strong emotional motivation: when someone who strongly believes that he resists fire [or mentally ignores this factor] to save his/her child becomes unaffected by fire in an extreme situation of ambition and elimination of logical reasons for self-preservation; or someone religiously strongly motivated on thinking that he is ‘divinely sent’ to identify and eliminate opponents of divine forces, will attempt all possible steps (violence, terrorism, genocide) to stop these factors, regardless of human ‘reality’ put into play. Therefore, we initiate a series of articles focusing on the dialogue between several domains for the same purpose: What are the factors involved in altering the image of reality, how is a mentally constructed the image of reality in the stages of psychic development, what are the ‘stimuli’ that can distort that image and who can ‘manipulate’ them, but also who can be the ‘correctors’ of these image distortions.
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This article defines religion in terms of some of its major characteristics. Special attention is paid to how religion is attuned to the structure of a prevailing social order. Religion renders valuable functions within the psyche of individuals and renders justification to the integrity of a community. A brief qualitative investigation utilizing interviews challenges Freud’s viewpoint about religion being a neurosis. It also illustrates that religion can be studied phenomenologically without having to bracket the concept, of God. Finally, people can live comfortably with paradoxes in their interpretations of reality. The awareness of personal limitations and the need for a sacred, embodied, immanent and transcendental world ensures the future of religion.
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The psychological counselling is a somewhat reduced form of psychotherapy and is used within the spheres of work among the psychologists which observe the problem as something which is less drastic. Psychological counselling is practiced in health care, education, social protection,etc. What makes the psychological counselling remarkable is its absolute inclusivity.
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The moral law is a pure existing fact of our mind and it is not conditioned by anything external. That universal law, when it is ordered and applied, is superior to our ‘happiness’ or ‘unhappiness’, far from today’s pragmatic form of moralizing and its relativization, as everyone has their own personal, personal, ego-morality that does not refer to any universal principle. To be able to feel such a pure inner moral law as human beings, we must be free beings and beings who believe in their immortality, souls as such. Today’s age has never refuted this pure Kantian foundation of Sulejmanpašić’s reasoning more strongly than to be truly surprised to appear from somewhere and see projects in the company of media that advocate and ‘make’ technical immortality for the existing material man...
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This article presents a diversity of major psychospiritual concepts in the works of Gerald Gordon May (1940–2005), half-brother on the renowned existential psychologist Rollo May. Unlike his brother, Gerald May has not penetrated the thought-provoking mainstream psychology of religion and spiritual theology. In the present text, we attempt to indicate some possible reasons for this, while also presenting him as a unique and insightful interdisciplinary author, exceptionally linking psychology and spiritual theology whose ideas were probably too advanced to be well accepted in his time. In order to argue in favor of this thesis separately from his diagnosis of the misuse of spirituality in contemporary society, the cornerstones of May’s contemplative psychology will be presented under headings such as unitive experiences, spiritual longing, and, their fruit, spiritual surrender.
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Studies of the Christian apocrypha have paid relatively little attention to the authors' self-awareness and intentions. The authors of the Apocrypha often impersonate characters of the apostolic generation or write about events that could not have been known to them. This leads to the suspicion that they are deliberately trying to manipulate the reader by directly deceiving him. In contemporary scholarship, apocryphal literature is often described as "forgery". We believe that in many cases this is not an accurate characterisation. The aim of the authors was not manipulation, creating a power relationship of authority with the reader, but the reconstruction of tradition by responding to a new Sitz im Leben. The article emphasises the secondary, derivative character of apocryphal literature. The authors of the Apocrypha were convinced of the veracity of their texts because they systematically relied on sources that were reliable from their point of view: the future canonical gospels, the oral contents, often with folkloric features, theological topoi taken over from the previous generation. This made it possible to attribute their work to the apostles or their companions, since the belief of the time was that the work of the disciples could rightly be attributed to the teacher. It is very likely that some of the works reflect the experience of altered states of consciousness.
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Technology has entered intrusively into human existence, into society and into the modern family, where we live or work, and even into our minds and souls. It is widely used today in all of its variants, thus making us addicted, to one degree or another, on its means of presentation. These days, babies are welcomed into this world with cameras, in order for the family to have this memory forever. Then, when they get home from the hospital, children get in contact with screens, first, in an indirect way, through their parents and their activities in the digital field, and secondly, by using technology by themselves, later on. Thus, devices become digital nannies, a comforting entourage, replacing, most of the times, the way too busy parents. When in school, students are stimulated to use digital devices and to benefit from the many advantages they offer. Nevertheless, the findings of professional studies in the field should not be forgotten. These treatise state the fact that even if, on a surface level, there seem to be a lot of advantages and bright aspects of technology, there are, as well, many risks and drawback shidden between the lines. The inconveniences regard the minds and souls of the children, their focusing abilities and the empathy level. This study has the purpose of presenting some of the implications of digital technology in the act of learning, being, in the same time, a warning regarding the perception and insight parents and educators should use in the process of guiding children grow into responsible and well-balanced adults.
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It is stated in the Qurʾān that there will be punishments and rewards for the deeds done. In addition, some details about the punishments and rewards to be given are given. While talking about punishment and reward, another issue that the Qurʾān mentions is the issue of doubling of deeds. When the Qurʾān is examined, two, ten, and seven hundred numbers are encountered as the coefficients for good deeds. As the coefficient that bad deeds will be doubled, either a solid or a double expression is encountered. In this study, I will try to determine the reasons for using the expression tenfold, how it is interpreted that a good deed is rewarded tenfold, and the place of tenfold reward in the interpretation of the verses about giving the reward of a good deed. In addition to these, I will touch on the differences in interpretations of this that have emerged. The connection of the subject with the concept of ru’yatullah and the claim that it would be unfair to give an absolute tenfold reward for each good deed gives a different dimension to the differences of interpretations. In other words, there are conflicts on this subject that can be considered as richness of interpretation and diversity, as well as conflicts in which theological principles are decisive. The fact that the issue of giving tenfold reward is handled in the context of justice and the distinction between sawāb-lutf shows that the theological paradigm difference is decisive in this conflict. In this study, I will deal with the issue that good deeds will be rewarded tenfold, both in terms of nature and problematic. The problematic aspect of this issue is which part of the tenfold reward is deserved and which part is the grace of Allah, and the difference in the nature of these two. In addition, the question of whether the additional rewards that will be given to the servants can be interpreted as seeing Allah instead of tenfold reward is the problematic aspect of our study. The rewarding of deeds tenfold and the continuous increase in this coefficient not only encourages people to increase their good deeds, but also provides the opportunity to make up for the sins they have committed. Because a person who knows that he will receive at least tenfold rewards for good deeds will turn to that deed. In addition, the message is given to a person who has committed a sin and who thinks that he will not be able to get rid of his sins, no matter how much his sin is, the good deeds done afterwards will be rewarded ten times and the sins will pass. When considered together with the verse “Will anyone else be destroyed except those who commit sin?”, it can be interpreted that there is no excuse for anyone who deserves to be punished even though Allah gives tenfold rewards for a good deed, while emphasizing that the one who is punished is definitely not persecuted and deserves this punishment. As a result, while a good deed is rewarded tenfold, and evil is punished only once, Allah has done justice to those who do evil, and has shown his grace and bounty to those who do good. In many verses of the Qurʾān, it is emphasized that the reward for good deeds will be multiplied, additional rewards will be given to the deserved reward, and righteous servants will be rewarded in the best way. On the other hand, it is revealed that an evil done will be repaid with the same amount, and if a sin is caused or pioneered, that sin will be punished with the same amount. Emphasizing that there will be no persecution after these are revealed, strengthens the interpretation that Allah's grace is valid in repaying good deeds, and that justice is valid in repaying evils. In addition, by expressing that there will be no persecution even though the rates are different, it is revealed that Allah will determine the spiritual level of the good done and that there is no need for worry for the servants in this regard.
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In terms of understanding and interpreting a text, both the Christian world and the Islamic world have developed a discipline appropriate to the nature of the belief in their own books. Schleiermacher, one of the names that had a profound effect on modern hermeneutics, proposes two methods for understanding and interpreting the New Testament (Gospels): grammatical and psychological methods. In this study, it was investigated whether the psychological method (hermeneutics) of Schleiermacher, who is a Christian theologian, can be utilized in the Qur’anic exegesis (tafsir) and interpretation (Ta’wil), and the similarities and intersections of this method with the sciences in the Qur’anic exegesis method have been attempted to be explained. In line with this goal, first of all, information about the understanding of the holy book in Christianity and Islam was given. Afterwards, the definitions of the intuitive and comparative method, psychological and technical task proposed by Schleiermacher in his psychological method were made and its contents were explained. In the last part, it has been evaluated whether the aforementioned methods would contribute to the interpretation of the Qur’an, and if a similar method has been formed as a science in the Islamic scientific tradition or in the method of tafsir, this was also stated. In addition, it has also been investigated whether the methods that cannot be used directly in the interpretation of the Qur’an can be applied to the authors of tafsir (mufassirun) and the tafsirs they have written, in other words, to the tafsir corpus. In Schleiermacher’s psychological method (hermeneutics), the main target is the text writer, not the text. The final achievement in this method, in which the author is centered, is that it is not possible to make a correct text analysis with a reading independent of the author. In this method, Schleiermacher proposes to know not only the text, but also the author and the sociocultural environment in which he lives. According to him, the geography and conditions of the author have a great influence on the formation of the text. Schleiermacher acknowledges that the authors of the Gospels; Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, were influenced by the sociocultural environment and added new meanings to the text and made additions. Therefore, he presented a method by considering how to understand a book that is partly inspired by God and partly a human product. Here, Schleiermacher built his psychological method (hermeneutics) on this understanding of revelation. According to him, the Bible texts should be read and interpreted in the context of the life and psychology of their authors. Knowing the non-linguistic context ensures a correct understanding of the Gospels. On the other hand, Muslims’ faith in the holy book is completely different from Christians. The Qur’an was protected from jinn and devils in bayt al-ʿizza and al-lawh al-Mahfooz and no creatures were allowed to interfere during the revelation process. The Prophet (pbuh) first memorized it himself, then had it memorized by the Companions, had the revelation scribes dictate it, and it has been preserved as it was revealed until today with collected and replicated. The Qur’an is a completely divine and heavenly book, different in nature from human speech, it is the word of God in wording and meaning, and the sole owner of the Qur’an is God. The biggest difference between the Qur’an and the Bible; The Qur’an is the word of God and the Bible is a religious text containing the interpretations of the clergy. Applying Schleiermacher’s psychological method in hermeneutics to the Qur’an means considering the Bible and the Qur’an, which are different from each other in terms of formation and source, as equal. Because of this difference between the two texts, using the methods and principles related to the text writer in Schleiermacher’s psychological method in the interpretation of the Qur’an causes a great inconsistency. Is it possible to apply some of the methods related to the text in Schleiermacher’s method in question to the text of the Qur’an? When the studies related to the Islamic scientific tradition and especially the discipline of tafsir are examined, it will be seen that a much more systematic version of Schleiermacher’s methods related to the text was applied to the text of the Qur’an centuries ago. Therefore, there is no need to resort to them. On the other hand, it seems possible to apply this method to mufassir and tafsirs. Because the mufassir is a human being, and his interpretation is a human-made work. According to Schleiermacher’s psychological method, it is not correct to read any tafsir as pure text. Tafsir should be evaluated together with the psycho-social situation of the mufassir. With this method, it is possible to reveal the social, political and theological thoughts that the mufassir have been influenced in their interpretations. This helps to identify right and wrong views, subjective and sociocultural effects in tafsir.
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There is a prevailing opinion in the literature that the first person to mention the interpretation of the Qur'ān with the Qur'ān as a method is Ibn Taymiyya (728/1328). Ibn Taymiyya puts this method at the forefront in the hierarchy of evidence he put forward in Muqaddima fī usūl al-tafsīr (Introduction to the Methodology of Exegesis). However, Abū Bakr ibn al-ʿArabī (d. 543/1148), who lived two centuries before him, also refers to the same method in the first place among the tafsīr methods he suggested. In this direction, in this article, Ibnu'l-Arabi's Qānūn al-Ta'wīl and Ibn Taymiyya's Muqaddima are the evidence that the interpretation of the Qur'ān with the Qur'ān is in the first place. Since they create a hierarchy of tafsīr, they are presented as works that try to determine a method for tafsīr. Subsequently, Ibn Taymiyya's presentation of the Qur'ān's interpretation with the Qur'ān as the most correct way of interpretation and the subsequent ordering of the hierarchy of evidence as a whole are shown in detail. Ibn Taymiyya states that if there is no interpretation of the Qur'ān with the Qur'ān in the hierarchy of evidence, which he describes as the best way of tafsīr, it is necessary to refer to the narrations of the companions and the narrations of the consensus of the tābiʿūn (successors of the companions), respectively, after the Sunnah. Ibn Taymiyyah states that it is necessary to resort to ijtihād in the parts of the subject in dispute, and states that legitimate ijtihādi tafsīr can be done through language and shari'ah - without centering any ideology. Ibn 'Arabi, on the other hand, created a two-stage hierarchy of evidence in order to correct the accuracy of the interpretations. In the first stage, Ibn al-Arabi emphasized that if the interpretation was made by using the interpretation of the Qur'ān with the Qur'ān, that interpretation would be accepted as correct without the need for any other evidence. However, if the verse is not provided with evidence while interpreting, the sunnah will be applied. The author, who went to the second stage in order to provide the ta'wīl made without showing the verse and sunnah evidence. In order to evaluate the interpretation made at this stage, he considered it necessary to verify with language and sharia evidence. Although there is a similarity in the order of the hierarchies of evidence between Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Arabi, Ibn al-Arabi explained a detailed path to be followed in addition to this hierarchy. Then, in our study, we focused on the reasons why the authors put the interpretation of the Qur'ān with the Qur'ān in the first place. In this direction, various signs such as Ibn al-Arabi's foregrounding the apparent in Qānūn al-Ta'wīl, mentioning the Qur'ān in the first place in the explanation of various ambiguities in the Qur'ān, and preferring the verse to the news are some of the signs that he saw it necessary. This gives us clues about the background of his putting the evidence first. In addition, as another sign of Ibn al-Arabi's prioritization of the Qur'ān, the fact that the Andalusia region was mostly in the Maliki sect in the time period he lived and its apparent precedence can be shown. In addition, it can be stated that the fact that the author was inspired by the Muādh hadith, which is accepted as the basis for the formula of qiyas in the fiqh method, as he is a Maliki jurist, may have been effective in placing the Qur'ān and tafsīr first in the hierarchy of evidence he suggested for tafsīr. It can be said that Ibn Taymiyya's advice of a hierarchy of evidence that puts the Qur'ān in the first place has the aim of eliminating the creed, political and intellectual differences and ensuring the unity of the Muslims. Finally, in our study, the problems that arise due to the fact that Ibn al-Arabi and Ibn Taymiyya put the interpretation of the Qur'ān with the Qur'ān in the first place in their works are shed light on. The first problem is whether the way in which the relevant authors put the Qur'ān and its interpretation first in the classical period, in which they lived, is different from the followers of the Ahl al- Qur'ān in the modern period. When the problem is examined, the fact that the scholars we took in the center mentioned evidences in addition to the interpretation of the Qur'ān with the Qur'ān gives us a clue that the classical period followed a more holistic path in the hierarchy of evidence. Another problem is whether the interpretation of the Qur'ān with the Qur'ān, which is included in the hierarchy of evidence presented by the relevant authors, is based on riwaya or diraya. It can be said that Ibn al-Arabi is closer to dirāya (sagacity) and Ibn Taymiyyah to riwāya (narrative) tafsīr. As a result, although there are differences between two scholars regarding the application of the relevant method, Ibn al-Arabi's mention of this method two centuries before Ibn Taymiyya is that the interpretation of the Qur'ān with the Qur'ān is a method. It is important that this will change the general acceptance about the date of its proposal.
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Sergius Bulgakov, Orthodox priest and philosophical theologian, made it a point of including, in several of his writings, accounts of epiphanic moments that constitute experiential groundings for the strenuous thinking produced in his sophiological theology. They are instructive both in regard to his personal life and as pathways into some of the most central themes of his work, namely, consubstantiality, interconnectedness, death/ dying, Divine-humanity, and catholicity.
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The author explores the issue of pain and suffering in the thought of C. S. Lewis and in the Orthodox patristic tradition. The central question of paper is whether Lewis was close to patristic tradition of the East regarding the problem of theodicy. Reviewing some characteristic patristic writings and Lewis’s work The Problem of Pain, the author comparatively analyses this question, while also pointing at the ever-important problem of atheism that primarily comes not out of the issue of God’s existence, but out of the issue of God’s justice.
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This paper is a review of German and American theologian Paul Tillich’s pastoral theory. Due to his appreciation of modern medicine and psychology, as well as his deep understanding of culture and symbolic forms, Tillich has formulated some interesting guidelines for the development of pastoral theology in modern age. Although he was a protestant theologian, his thought is inevitable and extremely important in every discussion about the relationship between Christianity and culture, which is also in the scope of interest of Orthodox pastoral theology. That is why the author will not only review Tillich’s pastoral theory, but also evaluate it from the Orthodox perspective.
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Service of “Nobility through the Spirit”. The Mission of Reformed Colleges to Support Talent. In the community of Reformed institutions, children’s growth is accompanied by educators whose mission is a call from God, in the spirit of which they seek to convey the word of the Bible to children. The main message of nurturing talent is to help all students become aware of the abilities they have received from God personally. Reformed colleges play a special role in this and build on significant historical traditions, and see nurturing talent as a process of complex personal development. The aim of the present study is to examine the mission of Reformed colleges in relation to talent development by highlighting two examples: the role of the Reformed College in Sárospatak and of that in Pécs in supporting talent. The sources used were school bulletins and yearbooks.
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The purpose of this article was to demonstrate how insights from cognitive science and psychology can be used to analyse ancient historical sources concerning religious dreams. The main methodological tool employed in the study was Patrick McNamara’s model of Supernatural Agent creation in REM dreams. Five-step cognitive model was applied to the dream described in chapter X of The Passion of Saints Perpetua and Felicity. Detailed analysis of the dream vision revealed that it was highly consistent with the model, with all five steps predicted by McNamara visible. These findings have profound impact on the interpretation of ancient text and also can be seen as a proof of validity of cognitive approach to historical sources.
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