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Starting from the distinction between phrase and utterance (and also between text and discourse), the paper aims to point to errors comming from ignoring the context as determinant for the sens of a given tolken. Famous phrases are invoked to prove the mandatory care for the context when chosing to use one of them.
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English for Legal Purposes (Legal English, or English for Law) engages in the study of the language used by lawyers in written and oral communication. The word is of the language of legal science textbooks, laws, court files, contracts, agreements, and other legal documents, the speech used in courtrooms, in activities of law offices, in all law services and practical functions. At the same time it is crystal clear that English for Legal Purposes serves a range of applications broader than in case of other specialising language registers, not only relating to criminal acts, courts and court procedures, but to all regulations providing, for instance, for company operations, treating issues of intellectual property, environmental protection, questions of international relations as well. The fact that efforts to reform this country’s judiciary have been in progress for quite some time now, accompanied by strong media publicity, also contributes to a rather intensive spreading of the vocabulary of Legal English in the general public. Law and legal terminology influence in a way all spheres of contemporary life, and thus expectations are quite natural that such a truth is pronounced in multinational i.e. multicultural social environments such as the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, where official use of different languages is the subject of legal regulation in the first place. This works aims at presenting the practically confirmed belief that active presence of different languages in an academic environment means a specific wealth certainly also tangible in the area of acquiring and mastering the vocabulary of English for Legal Purposes.
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The book „Grammaire littéraire ou explications suivie d’exercices sur les phrases, les allusions, les pensées heureuses empruntées à nos meilleurs écrivains et qui font aujourd’hui partie du domaine public de nottre littérature” by Pierre Larousse, despite its value, has unfortunately fallen into oblivion. It seems the classic quotes are replaced today in the speech by advertising and political slogans.
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We have presented observations stemming from the analysis of the lexicographical registration of adverbs resulting from the conversion of qualifying, categorising or participial adjectives. We have proposed to compile a lexical inventory of these adjectives, as well as to establish certain uniform lexicographical principles with respect to registering these forms in dictionaries.
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We propose a definition of aboutness topicality that not only encompasses individual denoting DPs, but also indefinites. We concentrate on the interpretative effects of marking indefinites as topics: they either receive widest scope in their clause, or they are interpreted in the restrictor of an overt or covert Q-adverb. We show that in the first case they are direct aboutness topics insofar as they are the subject of a predication expressed by the comment, while in the second case they are indirect aboutness topics: they define the subject of a higher-order predication — namely the set of situations that the respective Q-adverb quantifies over.
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This paper defends the view that syntax does not directly interact with information structure. Rather, information structure affects prosody, and only the latter has an interface with syntax. We illustrate this point by discussing scrambling, focus preposing, and topicalization. The position entertained here implies that syntax is not very informative when one wants to narrow down the interpretation of terms such as “focus”, “topic”, etc.
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Research on the temporal organisation of speech with respect to age is extremely important as it may provide empirical confirmation for the various models of speech production. With the advancement of age, speech motor control becomes more secure, and so the child gradually approaches the level of articulation and speech tempo typical of adults. There have been numerous works published on the temporal relations of English-speaking, normally developing children; however, the relevant literature still lacks data on bilingual children. The present paper aims to fill this gap: it discusses the temporal organisation of speech in Hungarian-Bulgarian bilingual children between the ages of 9 and 13 and monolingual children of the same age in a developmental perspective. The data on monolingual children in this paper also break new ground as only few papers have dealt with the speech rate of Hungarian children and none with that of Bulgarian children.
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The practical challenge of creating a Hungarian e-mail reader has initiated our work on statistical text analysis. The starting point was statistical analysis for automatic discrimination of the language of texts. Later it was extended to automatic re-generation of diacritic signs and more detailed language structure analysis. A parallel study of three different languages-Hungarian, German and English-using text corpora of a similar size gives a possibility for the exploration of both similarities and differences. Corpora of publicly available Internet sources were used. The corpus size was the same (approximately 20 Mbytes, 2.5-3.5 million word forms) for all languages. Besides traditional corpus coverage, word length and occurrence statistics, some new features about prosodic boundaries (sentence initial and final positions, preceding and following a comma) were also computed. Among others, it was found that the coverage of corpora by the most frequent words follows a parallel logarithmic rule for all languages in the 40-85% coverage range, known as Zipf's law in linguistics. The functions are much nearer for English and German than for Hungarian. Further conclusions are also drawn. The language detection and diacritic regeneration applications are discussed in detail with implications on Hungarian speech generation. Diverse further application domains, such as predictive text input, word hyphenation, language modelling in speech recognition, corpus-based speech synthesis, etc. are also foreseen.
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The subject of this paper is a special education resource called ’The Textbook of Hungarian Medical Language’, which is written for medical students. The study examines how language ideologies appear in the textbook as well as what kind of views of language are expressed. The authors of the book include physicians and other natural scientists and a few professional linguists. The analysis proves that in this textbook the language is described in an eclectic way and the folk linguistic point of view plays a central role, therefore the textbook is not suitable as an up-to-date education resource.
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W artykule zawarto porównanie teorii gramatyki przypadka, przedstawionej przez Charlesa Fillmore’a w 1968 r. i gramatyki zależności Luciena Tesnière’a. Omówiono pochodzenie obu teorii, rozwój koncepcji od gramatyki przypadka do semantyki ramowej, jak też pojęcie Walencji w różnych teoriach językoznawczych. Także poddano analizie podobieństwa i różnice pomiędzy dwiema teoriami na podstawie analizy zdań.
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Phonetically, the archetypal rhotic /r/ is a coronal speech sound that is often half-way between consonants and vowels, usually acting in words as a consonant syllable-wise. Its positional and structural functions in selected languages are described here from a diachronic perspective.
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Classical Arabic and Biblical Hebrew represent two opposite directions of the development of Proto-Semitic phonological system. This also refers to the rhotic phonemes /r/ and /ġ/. The comparison of the situation of their respective allophones portrays a different fate of these phonemes in Semitic languages in general. The comparison is based mostly on the description provided by Semitic languages researchers, including the medieval Arabic grammarian Sibawayh. Additionally, it takes into consideration the results of a statistical analysis on the situation of the phoneme /ġ/ in Biblical Hebrew.
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The acquisition of the Danish sound system can be a difficult task for both native and non-native speakers. This paper is an attempt at showing the ways in which /r/ contributes to the system’s overall complexity. It is suggested that /r/-related difficulties in Danish are due to the impact /r/ has on the neighboring sounds and, as a result, on the relations between graphemes, phonemes and sounds. Several phenomena connected with the presence of /r/ in various contexts are presented to exemplify the above statement, including r-coloring (i.e. the change of the quality of the neighboring vowel), the fusion of /r/ with neighboring vowels and the interactions between /r/ and /ə/, resulting in a change of vowel length and/or the assimilation of [ə]. The analysis focuses mainly on the grapheme-sound relations and the ways /r/ affects the discrepancy between Danish orthography and pronunciation.
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In various languages of the world, the so-called rhotic consonants arouse great interest of linguists. This is because these sounds are usually attributed to certain peculiar articulatory, acoustic, auditive and other characteristics. In addition, the functions they perform in phonological systems are, relatively frequently, quite complex. Spanish, in this aspect, turns out to be a specific language. Indeed, in addition to having two consonants of this type, it is a language where these sounds work in such a way as to provoke numerous descriptive, methodological and other problems. Hence, according to our perspective, Spanish can serve as a starting point for contrastive works within the framework of the rhotic consonants. For this reason, in this contribution our aim is to concisely present certain problems linked to the Spanish rhotic consonants indicating, at the same time, the features that differentiate them from the sounds that work in other languages that we have selected for this work.
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The paper examines and compares the realization of the rhotic consonant /r/ in fake and genuine Polish-accented English. The former variety is represented by the speech of several actors of different nationalities featuring in the 2017 American film The Zookeeper’s Wife, the latter is analysed on the basis of speech samples provided by 25 teenage Polish learners of English. We focus on the rhoticity vs nonrhoticity of the examined accents and the phonetic realizations of /r/ in order to draw conclusions concerning the authenticity of Polish English pronunciation in American films.
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The ethnographic-language borders of Belarus result from the settling processes of Eastern-Slavonic tribes and their accumulation on the Baltic substrate. Scholars agree that there are two tribes most important for the origin of the Belarusian language territory determining the language distinction of two basic Belarusian dialects – these are the Krivich and Dregovich tribes. The territory inhabited by the Krivichs is the area of the present north-eastern dialect and the land where the Dregovichs used to live is the area of the present south-western dialect. We need to remember however that the ethnographic-language borders changed depending on assimilation processes present in the area inhabited by the following tribes: Dregovichs, Drevlians, Krivichs, Poleshuks, Severians, Vyatichi. Archaeological, hydronymical, anthropological, ethnological and other data have led to the creation of the theory of the substrate origin of the Belаrusians whose core is the fact that the Slavs gradually assimilated the Balts in the Belarusian area being under the influence of the Baltic substrate at the same time. The main reason for the origin of East Slavonic languages was the regrouping which took place in two dialectal zones: Kiev-Polesian and Polotsk-Ryazan. The article presents the features which on the one hand contrast two Belarusian dialectal masses: the north-east and the south-west and on the other hand – indicate the historical connections of both dialects with earlier dialect areas: Polotsk-Ryazan and Kiev-Polesian.
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It is a characteristic feature of dialogue in literacy-artistic style to have introductory constructions with retorts. In relation to it, is the choice of verbal lexemes in introductory constructions. In the short stories analyzed the verbs of speaking appear most frequently. Within this class, the author uses forty different verbs, most frequently those which apart from information on the 'existence of act of speaking, such as say, tell, speak; bears an additional piece of information — on the manner of speaking, emotional condition of the speaker, or its relation towards an interlocutor or particular situation. On can speak on the term of stylistic choice. Both aspect and tense of the verbs in introductory constructions are used for artistic purposes; the author uses them in accordance with the change of temporal point from which he narrates the dialogue scenes.
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This paper considers the problem of part-of-speech tagging in Middle English corpora (as well as historical corpora in general). Whereas PoS-tagging in general is now considered a solved problem for Modern English and is mainly achieved via hidden Markov models (HMM) and matrix-based word-to-vector conversions with every word in the dictionary being embedded into a single dimension, this approach relies on recurrent syntactic structures and context-free generative grammars and is therefore not applicable to older iterations of the English language due to irregular word order. As such, we believe that Middle English could be better handled by a morphographemic encoding and instance-based machine learning algorithms like SVM, random forests, kNN, etc. Using a moving-average method to generate multidimensional vectors giving a reliable numeric representation of character composition and sequences, we have achieved a precision and recall of 87.5% in classifying Middle English words by their part of speech while using a simplistic combined voting-based binary classifier. This result could be deemed satisfactory and encourages further research in the area.
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The thrust of this paper is the pragmatic investigation of fraud spam, the unwanted emails containing the strategic use of language with the intention to swindle money from the recipients. Sixty (60) English medium email samples were collected from the author of the present paper’s email spam between July 2017 and February 2018 in Nigeria. These were analysed using Halliday and Hasan’s Generic Structure Potential and an aspect of Fetzer’s cognitive context model. The study identified six discourse patterns: salutation, discourse initiation, enticing information, mild conscription into business, request and subscription; orienting to contexts of business and religion; manifesting pragmatic strategies of adversatives, evocation of business idea, evocation of religious affinity and evocation of messianic figure. The study, therefore, concludes that cyber-fraudsters deploy similarly familiar patterns and contexts evincing strategic persuasive language to defraud their prospective victims. Significantly, the study complements existing literature on fraud discourse in linguistic scholarship.
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This paper analyzes two French cooking verbs: cuire and bouillir, and their Polish equivalents: (–)gotować (się), (–)piec (się), (–)smażyć (się), wrzeć, the symbol (–) indicates the prefix slot. Its purpose is to observe the figurative meanings of these verbs that are based on metaphorical and metonymic transfers. We have been able to identify the following semantic extensions, which are however not systematically exploited in the two analyzed languages: to submit to a strong action of the heat, to make a modification, to cause a physical or a moral pain, a painful feeling, to feel strong negative emotions, to be filled with anxiety, to be upset, to upset or to create difficulties, to stay unaided, helpless or lost, to be unable to escape, to regret, to be drunk, to write a text with great effort, to be hot, to boil, to resound with noise, to be in progress in an intense manner, to be in a state of excitement, not to suffer the consequences.
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