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Introduction to the monothematic issue of the journal on Crisis and State. On the Example of Czechoslovakia in the Interwar Period
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Introduction to the monothematic issue of the journal on Crisis and State. On the Example of Czechoslovakia in the Interwar Period
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Dissolution of Austro-Hungary in late 1918 also resulted in the monetary disintegration of its former territory. It started in Czechoslovakia by secrete conceptual preparations already before the monarchy collapse and publicly in Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes on 12 December 1918 by prohibition of import of the Austro-Hungarian banknotes. The disintegration was closed in Czechoslovakia by the currency reform in Ruthenia in November 1920 and in Italy in 1921 by withdrawal of the last unstamped Austro-Hungarian banknotes in some small islands in Adriatic sea. Transition to new currencies was carried out in four modes: (1) direct exchange for national currency (Italy, Poland, Czechoslovakia in Ruthenia 1920), (2) overprinting of banknotes (1000 crown notes in Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary), (3) hand-stamping of banknotes (Kingdom SCS January 1919, Romania, Fiume 1919 and 1920), (4) application of adhesive stamps (Czechoslovakia, Kingdom SCS September 1919).In all states having marked the Austro-Hungarian banknotes the used stamps or overprints were largely counterfeited from very different motives. All modes of marking exhibited considerable technical imperfections that made the counterfeiting easy and the counterfeits difficult to recognize. In this way, serious disturbances in money circulation and economical damages arose. The extent of counterfeiting in individual states is known to a very different degree. The most detailed information is available in Czechoslovakia, where 156 types of counterfeits were distinguished and at the time of circulation of the stamped banknotes, the counterfeits in the value of 255 millions crowns were recorded. However, the analysis of the preserved banknotes, where about one half of counterfeited stamps had not been identified as false, indicate that the real values of counterfeits could reach 500 millions crowns, hence even 10% of the then money circulation.The highest extent of counterfeits was identified, basing on the amount of officially stamped banknote and of the stamped banknotes presented for exchange for lei, to about 62% of money circulation.Similarly in Kingdom SHS, the amount of counterfeited stamps from the first statistical stamping in January 1919 was estimated only indirectly to about 4–5% of the money circulation. The extent of counterfeiting of stamps from the second stamping is officially unknown, in spite of the fact, that 10 types of false stamps attached on 1000-crown notes were recorded.The extent of counterfeiting of stamps in Fiume is exactly unknown. Originally, it was taken as enormously high, but on the protests of citizens all suspect stamps were finally declared as genuine or unrecognizable and let in circulation.In Hungary, the counterfeits were recorded already during the stamping. There exist many stamps marked as false, but the exact data are still unknown.In Austria a special situation occurred. Until April 1920, only mostly individual primitive counterfeits of 19 types on small banknotes were recorded. As late as in mid-April an explosion of occurrence of counterfeited overprints on 1000- and 10,000-crown notes appeared. The available data indicate that their values reached several millions of crowns, but the real extent was probably much higher. The total number of officially known types of counterfeits reached 30, but probably was higher. The Austro-Hungarian bank compensated them to most owners by unstamped notes that could be sold in free devise marked with a los of 10-20%. It also compensated the banknotes with false Czechoslovak or Yugoslav stamps, if the owner presented confirmation of the Czechoslovak or Yugoslav authorities, that the stamps are false. The timing of explosion of occurrence of false Austrian overprints coincides with end of legal circulation of unstamped notes in Poland and Italy and with the delayed stamping in Hungary.
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At the beginning of the study, the author traces the course of a significant international meeting that took place in Geneva in May 1927. In their speeches, its participants focused on then economic situation not only in post-war Europe, but also on other continents. They tried to find solutions and possibilities for the economy. The Czechoslovak government, multiple economic institutions, and significant personalities as well as scientific journals and the political press showed interest in the results, especially plans based on the conference proposals. Nevertheless, the eruption of the Great Depression thwarted the possibility to apply the Geneva Conference recommendations to real life. The following part of the study is dedicated to the course and aftermath of the Great Depression in Slovakia, namely in Bratislava. Unlike the all-Slovak economic situation where agriculture dominated, in Bratislava the most affected sectors were industry and construction. However, increasing unemployment also penetrated commerce, traffic, and financial institutions as well as the development of healthcare and culture. The inhabitants of Bratislava did not return to pre-war living conditions until 1936–1937. At that time, new acute problems emerged across society that were provoked by tense international relations and that led up to World War Two.
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Based on archival sources, the study elucidates the development of business-political relations between Czechoslovakia and Austria during the second half of the 1920s. In connection with the stabilisation of Austrian economy and its foreign-political establishment in the Versailles System, the study traces the emancipation of Austrian business politics especially in the customs sphere was enhanced by the growing pressure of Vienna for a bilateral business-political agreement. The article answers the question whether Austria achieved its requirements through a desired dialogue or through a tariff war that could be elicited by the adoption of higher autonomous customs tariffs, or forcing a time limit on the Czechoslovak side under the threat of the contractless relationship in the customs tariff sphere. In this context, the author further highlights that Czechoslovak diplomacy responded to this qualitative shift in mutual business-political relations by postponement tactics and in spite of the consent of Edvard Beneš to begin new negotiations on the general regulation of the mutual business relations in March 1925, that did not take place until early 1927 after the termination of the additional conventions by Austria. It is worth noticing that Austria retained the customs tariff provisional measure even after the subject agreements were terminated in April 1927. Nonetheless, even the new negotiations did not lead to an agreement that would facilitate better economic cooperation and the new additional agreement of June 1927 weakened the Czechoslovak position on the Austrian market. The study concludes with the paternalist discourse of Prague during their negotiations with Vienna and a certain dissonance primarily in the activities of the agrarian elites which asserted prohibitive agrarian tariffs despite their concern about the high Austrian autonomous customs tariffs.
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A wide range of crisis phenomena that had roots in the Great War affected the first post-war years of the newly established Czechoslovak Republic. They included the supply crisis leading to an unacceptable increase in prices, shortage of almost all daily commodities, a thriving black market, hunger, and social tension. Illegal business helped many people, mostly foodstuff traders and producers, to make a fortune.Josef Karel Ort was a remarkable figure connected with the mill on the Ohře River in Koštice, North Bohemia. Although his businesses violated the law, Ort provided work for the imperial and royal state authorities during the war and afterwards also the Czechoslovak ones. His illegal businesses crossed the regional borders and eventually those of the state as well. When Ort was arrested in April 1919 and taken to court, the journalists called his case ‘The Ort Affair’. The judicial proceedings uncovered his illegal businesses that took advantage of the catastrophic supply situation, imposed several custodial sentences, impounded several tens of tons of corn and miller’s products, imposed an enormous financial penalty, and finally the court of appeal issued a ruling that, colloquially speaking, turned the villain into a hero.Part of the article is specifically devoted to Josef Karel Ort, a modern-thinking man, sponsor of many fellowships, and pioneer of modern conveniences. His family situation did not fall into oblivion either. After his death in 1927, he left behind immense wealth, debts, and an exceptional life story.
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Not only pilots and aerospace engineers, but also politicians and part of intelligentsia were aware of the future importance of aviation after the Great War. The defensive capacity of the country played a crucial role, but the first realistic ideas about the use of air transport, especially for airmail, appeared in 1919. The nearly futurist images of air connections, miles apart from the possibilities of the time, instigated the artist’s imagination, for example the short story of the painter Josef Šíma or the drawings of ‘future towns’ by Italian futurists and Czech caricaturists. The artists understood aviation mainly as the means of ‘fast’ social communication. In 1923, linguists agreed on using the general term aviation for everything related to flying. It was the notional dot after the first concepts of the air transport in Czechoslovakia. Inevitably, all of these efforts were later reflected in popular pictures, especially in advertising. Airplanes were also used for advertising, either by the industrial enterprises Schicht, Baťa, and Poldina huť or by the aircraft producers and carriers. At that time, the crucial study of Vlastimil Fiala titled Náš vzduch, naše moře (Our Air, Our Sea) was published which later developed in the motto ‘Air Is Our Sea’.
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Michaël Girardin, L’offrande et le tribut. Histoire politique de la fiscalité en Judée hellénistique et romaine (200 a.C. - 135 p.C.)
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Between the Old Testament and the New Testament there are striking contradictions in their approach to wealth and poverty. 1. In the Old Testament wealth is blessed: 1.1. God encouraged and was very generous with the offering of numerous and great riches, sometimes exorbitant, as in the case of Solomon, Job, Isaac, etc. 1.2. Wealth is not regarded as a hindrance to a man’s salvation, even if he puts his trust in it and is unwilling to give it up for the sake of the poor. 1.3. Poverty is not condemned, but it is not appreciated, and even more so, it is not glorified. 2. In the New Testament, poverty is blessed by Jesus Christ, from encouraging it, favoring it, to guaranteeing that the Kingdom of God belongs only to the poor. (See, for example, Luke 6:20; Matthew 5:3, etc.; 1 Timothy 6:8; Matthew 19:21). 2.2. Wealth is condemned. (See, for example, Matthew 19:23,24).
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At the headquarters of the General Association of Romanian Engineers (AGIR), on 12 December 2008, the centenary of the birth of the inventor of deep-sea drilling, Dr.Eng. Ion Șt. BASGAN and the 10th anniversary of the foundation named after the Romanian inventor. The producer of the radio show „In the foreground Romania” on RADIO ROMÂNIA INTERNATIONAL, Nicolae Mircea NĂSTASE, recorded several interviews and presented them in the edition „Romanians for world history” - Ion Șt. BASGAN - the Romanian who revolutionized the world oil extraction industry. During the same broadcast, the „Ion Basgan” Foundation was also presented. Ion Șt. BASGAN. The programme was broadcast on Radio Romania International on 28 December 2008. Among those interviewed were: Ion I. BASGAN, president of the „Ion Basgan” Foundation, prof.dr.eng. Valeriu STĂNESCU, president of the ELIAS Foundation, dr.eng. Mihai MIHĂIȚĂ, president of AGIR, Prof. Gabriel I. NĂSTASE, Executive President of the „Ion Basgan” Foundation, Dorel DORIAN, journalist, Mihai OLTENEANU, geologist and journalist.
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The aim of the article was to analyze the causes and consequences of the great economic crisis in Poland in the context of the world economy and the global crisis. The first symptoms of the crisis became evident in June 1929, when pro- duction began to decline, and in August that year price drop began. After these events, the economic situation in Poland was systematically deteriorating. The year 1935 can be considered the end of the crisis in Poland, despite the fact that the industrial crisis began to break through gradually already in 1933. The great economic crisis was a global phenomenon, even though it did not start in all countries at the same time. It depended on the internal economic situation of each of them. It stood out against the background of previous economic crises due to the fact that only the introduction of state interventionism in the form of the “New Deal” program in the USA brought about an improvement in the situation, and therefore, in 1933, some economic recovery began in the world. However, in some parts of the world (including Poland), due to the specific features of their economies, the crisis lasted until 1935. The crisis of 1929–1935 was rightly called “the great crisis”, not only because of economic problems, but also due to political consequences, i.e., the strengthening of totalitarian systems in Western Europe and the growing importance of the communist movement around the world (the USSR was the only country not affected by its consequences). The great economic crisis was characterized by:1. longevity – in industrial countries it lasted until 1933, and in agricultural countries until 1935;2. depth of impact – it covered all areas of the economy: industry, agriculture, domestic and foreign trade, transport, monetary and creditsystem;3. wide geographic scope – it covered all countriesof the world connected with the world capital-ist system and capitalist economies;4. the scale of the decline in economic growth rates – in the history of economic crises to date, the world economy has not experienced sucha deep collapse and stagnation.
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The interwar period produced a new form of social-political organization that was called totalitarianism. The communist ideal has always been proclaimed as the antidote to selfishness, especially selfishness materialized in property. Ideal communism in action appears very rarely in the historical evolution of mankind. In conclusion, the social and economic arrangement, which bears the name of communism, is defined by the fact that no member of it possesses more than any other, either because all property is held in common, or because the institution of property does not exist, either because ownership is limited to the means of consumption and is excluded as regards the means of production and exchange.
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After several failed attempts made in the 1850s, new initiatives were undertaken in 1861 to open the river Prut for steamship navigation. The interest of entrepreneurs from Galati, along with the support of the authorities, both in Iași and at local level, and the involvement of foreign experts involved in engineering the Danube, contributed to the rapid mobilization of human, financial, material and administrative resources. The objective was to transform the Prut into a navigable river for river steamboats, which would transport the agricultural production of the upstream regions to Galati. This text provides the context for these initiatives based on three reports drawn up by two foreign engineers, John Stokes and Eduard Süren. Their accounts, dated July and October 1861, outline the challenges that hindered navigation on the Prut, as well as the opportunities created by opening the river to a modern merchant fleet. In his reports, Stokes estimated that the opening of the Prut would contribute to the prosperity of Moldavia and the Danube region. Navigation on the lower reaches of the river was not technically very difficult, and could be facilitated as far as Iași with relatively simple hydraulic works and modest expenditure. At that time there was political will, both nationally and internationally, for such an initiative. Interested investors, including British capitalists, provided significant guarantees for the project's completion. Süren’s information on the geography of the Prut valley and the riverbed aligns with Stokes’ reports, but Süren also provides additional data on the depth, velocity and width of the river based on his preliminary measurements. According to the engineer, to enable navigation on the Prut, three types of technical works needed to be undertaken: “clearing works,” “construction of the towpath,” and “river correction.” As these reports are of interest for aspects related to the history of economy, international relations or environmental history, as well as for the local history of the communities along the Prut river, the second part of this work includes the reports of the two engineers
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First century B.C.E. in the history of Aegean Greece it was an exceptionally gloomy period. Between 88 BC and 31 B.C.E. Rome's first war with Mithridates took place on its lands, and later three Roman civil wars ended here. The article is an attempt to look at these events from a Greek perspective. It shows how the fighting Romans used Greek human, financial and material resources, and what effects it had.
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The article examines and analyzes the history of the formation and development of the military command of military-economic formations in Ukraine in the first half of the 19th century. Research methods. An important aspect of the methodological basis is the use of general scientific and special scientific methods: analysis and synthesis, historical, biographical, classification, problem-chronological. Scientific novelty is that for the first time the military leadership of military-economic formations in Ukraine, participation in the development and implementation of projects on the organization of military settlements of cavalry have been comprehensively investigated. Among the higher military and political command, an experienced commander, cavalry general, intelligence officer, earl Ivan Witt (1781–1840) was chosen to implement the plan to create settled structures on the territory of Ukraine. Conclusions. So, the data we obtained allow us to state that the cavalry general, scout, earl Ivan Witt entered the structure of the military and political elite in Ukraine in the first half of the 19th century. An important initial indicator of military-political "elitism" was the ownership of great counts and princes. Earl I. Witt became one of the most influential and trusted military leaders of the governments of Emperors Alexander I and Nicholas I, received a number of awards. He proposed measures to improve the military-settlement system in Ukraine. Thanks to his experience, professionalism, initiative and brilliant organizational skills, commanding skills of a military leader and charisma, the cavalry settlement quickly switched to food from the land at a lower cost than the infantry settlement.
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The article summarizes and analyzes the main range of issues related to the modern economy of Ukraine in the conditions of the war and the future post-war recovery, which are highlighted in the scientific research of students and presented at the regional scientific and practical conference of young scientists «Economics, entrepreneurship and economic education in the conditions of modern challenges» (March 31, 2023, Yaroslav Mudryi National Law University).
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The aim of the paper is to explore the interaction between regulatory provisions governing the status of women, which were part of Croatia’s legal system as it developed in the period of history called the short 19th century (1848-1914). The Austrian General Civil Code, the Hungarian-Croatian Trade Code and Industry Act and the Croatian School Act constitute the backbone of the research. More specifically, the focus is on the provisions that enabled the economic emancipation of women in the context of guaranteed gender equality and access to education. Given the economic circumstances in the period under review, the opportunities as well as the restrictions faced by women in the labour market of the time, our intention is to ascertain whether and if so in what way the Austrian and Hungarian-Croatian acts, accompanied by Croatia’s autonomous legislative framework, influenced the process of transformation of the traditional understanding of the status of women in society.
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The uniqueness of Wallachian settlement in the territories of Poland was that it extended beyond its natural mountain and submontane zone. This resulted in the emergence of settlements founded under Wallachian law, including the Sandomierz Forest area. The aim of the article is to examine the economic activity of the residents of these settlements, which was conditioned by the environmental situation. One important problem addressed in this work is the question of reasons for the colonisation backwardness in this region, manifested in the slow pace of the progress of urbanisation, the limited scope of the money economy, and the late development of manorial demesnes, among other factors. These delayed and poorly discernible processes were followed by the evolution of the profile of Wallachian-law settlements, evident in the 16th century. The permeation of elements of Wallachian customs into agricultural settlements was an important adaptation element that has not been properly examined in the literature.
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This article inquires into the social opportunities of the Transylvanian precious mining via one career-history from a noble family who belonged to the economic elite of Abrudbánya/Abrud, the most significant mining town of Metaliferi Mountains. The Fodor family was part of a number of resettled noble families in this region who wanted to improve their social and financial status with the help of precious metal mining. This family had so many entrepreneurial skills that this way they could become the most influential family in the area of the Metaliferi Mountains. Pál Fodor was an ancestor of this family, who led the gold exchange in the precious metal mining towns. Via his social and financial network, his son, György Fodor, could access court service in the court of Gábor Bethlen. His daughters could get married with members of noble families (for example the family of Barcsay). These marriages did not only have advantages for the Fodor family, but also for the Barcsay family, because they could get significant wealth.
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The issue of analyzing factors of the dynamics of the economic performance of every economy, which means Bosnia and Herzegovina as well, is continuously very current, challenging, significant, and complex. Adequate control of key factors can significantly influence the achievement of the target economic performance of the economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The application of multi-criteria decisionmaking methods enables adequate control of the key factors of the economic performance of the economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bearing that in mind, this paper analyzes the dynamics of the economic performance of the economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the period 2013 - 2022 based on the LMAW-DNMA method. The top five years according to the economic performance of the economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina according to the LMAW-DNMA method are in order: 2018, 2019, 2017, 2016, and 2015. The worst economic performance of the economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina was achieved in 2020. Lately, in general, it has significantly improved the economic performance of the economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This was influenced by adequate management of the analyzed statistical variables (gross domestic product, inflation, agriculture, industry, export, import, capital, income, taxes, time required to start business - days, and domestic loans provided by the financial sector). Likewise, the geopolitical situation, the economic climate, foreign direct investments, the COVID-19 pandemic, the energy crisis, the digitalization of the company's entire operations, and other factors. In any case, their adequate control can greatly influence the achievement of the target economic performance of the economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
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The subject of researchis: economic initiatives of the first President of independent Ukraine through the prism of studying periodicals. The purpose of the scientific article is to investigate the economic initiatives of the first President of independent Ukraine through the prism of studying the periodicals of 1991-1994. Research methods. All components of the research are based on the main principles – sientificity, historicism, objectivity, systematicity, development, the priority of concrete truth, pluralism, as well as methods of learning socio-economic processes of social development-analysis, synthesis, problem-chronological, comparative-analytical, archeographical, content-analysis, retrospective, statistical, system and integrated approach. Work methodology. In the process of researching the specified issues, we took as a basis the main provisions: the history of Ukraine, economic history and the history of economic thought, the work of domestic and foreign scientists and practitioners in the specified field, Fund of the Presidents of Ukraine (interview, speeches of the President of Ukraine L.M. Kravchuk in front of domestic and foreign mass media), materials of the information service of the President of Ukraine, etc. Work results. In the context of the mentioned problems, we investigated economic initiatives of the first President of independent Ukraine through the prism of studying periodicals. Field of application of results. The results of this study can be applied in the field of studying the problems of economic history and the history of economic thought, the history of the development of the national economy, and the history of Ukraine. Conclusions. So, research of the economic initiatives of the first President of independent Ukraine through the prism of studying the periodicals of 1991-1994 gives reason to assert that Leonid Makarovych quite clearly understood what the economic course of a young independent state should socially oriented market economy, which proclaims the diversity and equality of all forms of ownership, including private ownership of the means of production, establishes the rights of the state to conduct its own economic policy, create its own budget, tax and banking system, monetary unit, labor market, valuable papers, as well asassistance to foreign investors, in particular, foreign business entities should have equal rights with domestic entrepreneurs, including property rights, reinvestment and repatriation of the corresponding share of profit with preferential taxation. Along with constant willingness to develop various ties with Western partners, priority and vital importance for L. M. Kravchuk remained all forms and directions of economic cooperation with sovereign republics. It should be noted that the outlined issues remain open because of the research initiatives of the first President of independent Ukraine, will provide an opportunity to follow the peculiarities of the formation and development of the institution of the presidency, as well as its influence on state-building processes, including economic ones.
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