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In Search of the Essence Cover Image

В поисках сущности
In Search of the Essence

Essays in honour of Nicolai Russev. on the occasion of his 60th birthday

Contributor(s): Mark E. Tkachuk (Editor), Georgi Atanasov (Editor)
Subject(s): History, Archaeology, Cultural history, History of ideas, Ancient World, Middle Ages, 6th to 12th Centuries, 13th to 14th Centuries, 17th Century, Scientific Life
Published by: Издательский дом Stratum, Университет «Высшая антропологическая школа»
Keywords: history; archaeology; Middle Ages; numismatic; epigraphy; Bulgarian studies; Moldova; Golden Horde;
Summary/Abstract: Elsewhere, not in Moldova, Nikolai D. Russev would have been long ago recognized an outstanding contemporary, a kind of Jacques Le Goff from the Balkans, a kind of Nicolae Iorga from the Danube and Dniester, an active and cheerful chronicler, keeper and — in a certain sense — an eyewitness of the region’s five hundred years of history. The kind of history nobody else can tell here, unfortunately. The kind of history he is writing every day, having hardly anyone to tell it to. The historical activity is disappearing here. Storytellers are not wanted. No one is tempted by the lessons of the past. Mistakes are not learnt from, personalities are not respected. Moldova, this “borderland between worlds and times”, turns into an intellectual and human desert.

Series: Библиотека Stratum

  • E-ISBN-13: 978-9975-3343-1-0
  • Print-ISBN-13: 978-9975-3343-2-7
  • Page Count: 505
  • Publication Year: 2019
  • Language: Bulgarian, Russian
Дунайская элегия Руссева

Дунайская элегия Руссева
(Russev’s Danubian Elegy)

  • Author(s):Mark E. Tkachuk
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Editorial, Scientific Life
  • Page Range:13-18
  • No. of Pages:6
  • Summary/Abstract:Ad gloriam
Приятелски и колегиален поздрав към Николай Руссев

Приятелски и колегиален поздрав към Николай Руссев
(Greetings to Nikolai Russev from Friends and Colleagues)

  • Author(s):Valeri Yotov, Alexander Minchev
  • Language:Bulgarian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Scientific Life
  • Page Range:19-20
  • No. of Pages:2
  • Summary/Abstract:Ad gloriam
«Гораздо сложнее было с живыми…»: История одного поселка на границе тектонических сдвигов цивилизаций

«Гораздо сложнее было с живыми…»: История одного поселка на границе тектонических сдвигов цивилизаций
(“Those alive were much harder to deal with…”: history of a settlement on the border between tectonic shifts of civilizations)

  • Author(s):Oksana A. Dovgopolova
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Ethnohistory, Modern Age, Recent History (1900 till today), 19th Century, Book-Review
  • Page Range:21-24
  • No. of Pages:4
  • Summary/Abstract:Book review: "Шикирлик-Суворово: два века в истории (1815—2015)"
Список печатных трудов Н. Д. Руссева

Список печатных трудов Н. Д. Руссева
(List of Published Scientific Works by N. D. Russev)

  • Author(s):Nicolaj D. Russev
  • Language:Bulgarian, Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Cultural history
  • Page Range:25-32
  • No. of Pages:8
  • Summary/Abstract:List of Published Scientific Works by N. D. Russev
Елинистически фигурални лампи от античното светилище на нос Свети Атанас край Бяла, Варненско

Елинистически фигурални лампи от античното светилище на нос Свети Атанас край Бяла, Варненско
(Hellenistic Plastic Lamps from the Ancient Sanctuary at Sveti Atanas Cape near Byala, Varna Region)

  • Author(s):Alexander Minchev
  • Language:Bulgarian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Cultural history, Ancient World
  • Page Range:35-42
  • No. of Pages:8
  • Keywords:Western Black Sea region; Hellenism; plastic lamps; ancient pit sanctuary; Thracians; cult objects
  • Summary/Abstract:Three plastic terracotta lamps of Hellenistic period have been published and discussed in this article. They were discovered at three different cult pits during excavation of the ancient Thracian pit sanctuary, located near Byala, Varna Region, Bulgaria. It is situated on Sveti Atanas Cape and was in function during 6th —1st centuries BC, or maybe a bit later.All three lamps are shaped as Negroid heads. The first one is made of brownish clay and is preserved intact. It is dated to the 3rd century BC and is possibly of Attic origin. It finds parallels among the finds of the second half of the 3rd century BC from Seuthopolis — the capital of the Thracian Kingdom of 4th —3rd centuries BC. The other two lamps are also shaped as Negroid heads, but fragmented and belong to another type. A lamp of the same shape was found in Burgas, again on the Western Black Sea coast. Based on similar finds from other regions of the Ancient world, both lamps from Byala have been dated to the 1st century BC. The author supposes that they are of Asia Minor origin and possibly products of Cnidus’s workshops.Based on the finds in the pits, it was established that this cult center was used, by no doubts, by the locals: Thracians and Greeks who lived around the cape in the vicinity, and in the ancient towns on the coastline. It was visited permanently also by a number of ancient sailors of various ethnic origin, who stopped there to make their offerings to the gods when sailing along the Western Black Sea coast in northern and southern directions. The three lamps were deposited probably as votive offerings by ancient sailors, who deliberately stopped at the sanctuary on Sveti Atanas Cape. Here, they were able to make their ritual offerings to thank the (sea?) gods for saving their lives during that sailing or for a safe return home.
Българският поведенчески стереотип — кимане с глава в знак на съгласие у гетите в Tristia на Овидий

Българският поведенчески стереотип — кимане с глава в знак на съгласие у гетите в Tristia на Овидий
(The Bulgarian Behavioral Stereotype, Head Nodding Used by the Getae as a Sign of Consent in Ovid's Tristia)

  • Author(s):Atanas Orachev
  • Language:Bulgarian
  • Subject(s):History, Anthropology, Customs / Folklore, Ancient World, Cultural Anthropology / Ethnology
  • Page Range:44-53
  • No. of Pages:10
  • Keywords:Ovid; Tristia; Getae; head nod; ethnic stereotype; Bulgarian behavioral stereotype; Thracian language; Sclaueni
  • Summary/Abstract:The tenth elegy in the Fifth Book of “Sorrows” (Tristia 5.10), which Ovid wrote in 12th year AD, was repeatedly commented on and translated for historical, ethnic and literary purposes. Particularly, for Tristia 5.10.41—42 it was noted that “the text seems to be dubious” and such translations were offered that did not reflect the essence of that elegiac observation by the Roman poet. In 1975, Friedrich Hauben perceived the meaning and made an ethnographic parallel to point out that only Bulgarians and Greeks had the opposite use of a pan-European gesture system with head nodding expressing consensus or negation. However, the «ethnic stereotype» described by Ovid is characteristic only for the Bulgarians in Europe, and when registering an approving head nod (top-down) or turning it left and right (as a sign of denial) in present Turkey, Macedonia and Albania, we must seek for the ancient substrate (the presence of similar substrates in India also requires further research). The Getaic head nodding as a consensus for now has no other explanation except for the fact that the Getae, like the other Thracian communities, had not “disappeared”, but what is more, made a significant contribution to the evolution of the Bulgarians as an ethnic group. Against the background of the available evidence and futility of the German thesis of Völkertode of the “ancient peoples”, however paradoxical it sounds, there is literally no need to prove that the Getae and the Dacians were the main part of those North Thracian peasant communities, which in the written documents from the end of the 6th century AD on began to be designated in Greek as Σκλάβήνοι or Σκλαύηνοι, while in Latin — Sclaueni, Sclavi, Sclauini.
Античная печь ІІІ в. на мысе Св. Атанас, Варненская область, Болгария

Античная печь ІІІ в. на мысе Св. Атанас, Варненская область, Болгария
(Antique Kiln of 3rd Century on Sveti Atanas Cape, Varna Region, Bulgaria)

  • Author(s):Valeri Yotov
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Ancient World
  • Page Range:55-63
  • No. of Pages:9
  • Summary/Abstract:The author examines a kiln for household ceramics, which was discovered on Sveti Atanas cape in Byala, Varna region, Bulgaria. The ceramic kiln was cleared in the horizon under the street (dated to the end of the 6th century), which was also traced in previous archaeological seasons. The kiln relates to a double-chamber structure with a vertical rod.The upper layer of the lower chamber contained a large number of fragments of tiles and pithoi among the burnt pieces of clay and ash. Many sherds of household ceramics were found under this layer. Inside the kiln chamber, at the bottom, in the layer of ash and coal, there was one whole bowl, fragments of several deformed bowls and a whole pot. To the west of the kiln entrance, a rounded pit was excavated. A large number of fragmented ceramics (with manufacturing defects) was discovered. Three bowls are restored. At the level of the broken grid, a strongly burnt chimney was found, which was probably reused with respect to the grid construction.A completely preserved and well-burned vessel in the shape of a cone was found in the lower chamber of the kiln. Fragments of a dozen other similar, but coarse and poorly burned conical vessels (restored four), were also found in the pit at the entrance in front of the furnace. There are several hypotheses about the use of such vessels/cones: used in ancient gardening; as polyfunctional funnels; to build a domed construction of kilns or in building construction.The oven and ceramics date from approximately the second half of the 2nd century — mid 50s of the 3rd century, and are evidence of a new provincial pottery production center of the Roman period in the Western Black Sea region.
Баптистерии раннесредневекового византийского Херсона: некоторые итоги изучения

Баптистерии раннесредневекового византийского Херсона: некоторые итоги изучения
(Baptisteries of the Early Medieval Byzantine Cherson: some results of study)

  • Author(s):Serghei B. Sorochan
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Cultural history, Middle Ages, 6th to 12th Centuries
  • Page Range:67-71
  • No. of Pages:5
  • Keywords:Byzantium; Cherson; Crimea; baptistery; baptismal font;sacrament of baptism;
  • Summary/Abstract:The typology of baptisteries of Byzantine Cherson of 6th—9th centuries is studied in the article. By the middle of the 7th century, each region of the city had its own temple with a baptistery, and their total number could reach nine. The overwhelming number of baptismal fonts were of small size and depth, and were intended for the baptismal rite, mainly over small children. Such baptisteries did not need any catechumens or hrismarions. In four cases the ponds of small fonts were raised above the floor and attached to the wall, but there were also fonts built in level with the floor, for the baptism of adults. The ponds were cut down in the rock, wrought from solid stone or built from plinth with the cement. They were shaped as a circle, polyhedron, semicircle, rectangle, or a three-conchal cross. There are finds of portable, mobile marble fonts. Baptisteries of Cherson can be divided into two groups: built as a detached building or as a part of a temple (the latter are most numerous). Among them, there are a few processional, “enfilade” baptisteries and more numerous single-chamber baptisteries. Arranged most often in the southern part of the temple, they had access to the altar. In addition, among them there were baptisteries of pure type and baptistery-martyria (at the Western basilica, “temple with the ark” no. 19 and in baptistery no. 24 at the Great Basilica). They reveal a noticeable influence of the Christian East.
О «кочевнических юртах» на памятниках оседлого населения лесостепи (V—VIII вв.)

О «кочевнических юртах» на памятниках оседлого населения лесостепи (V—VIII вв.)
(On the “Nomadic Yurts” on the Sites of the Settled Population of the Forest-steppe (5th—8th Centuries))

  • Author(s):Michel Kazanski
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Middle Ages, 6th to 12th Centuries
  • Page Range:73-86
  • No. of Pages:14
  • Keywords:Eastern Europe; Early Medieval Period; forest-steppe; nomads; Slavs; yurts
  • Summary/Abstract:The finds of the so-called yurt-like structures on the sites of the forest-steppe settled population of the 5th—8th centuries are considered in this article. It is believed that these buildings reflect the contacts of steppe nomads with settled barbarians, primarily with the Slavs. Most of the structures considered — Ksizovo 19, Bogatoe, Osipovka, Dereyvka, Budishchi, Lug-I — are stationary semi-dugouts, most often of a pole-like frame structure, with or without a hearth. Such buildings may belong to the nomadic population who mastered the principles of construction of permanent housing. With the yurts, they are approximated by a rounded shape and a hearth in the center. But the Slavs throughout their history were settled people. Such structures are well known for the cultures of the Roman period, in particular for Kiev culture, which is related to the ancestors of the Slavs. It can be assumed that the rounded frame-adobe buildings with a deep foundation, known on the Slavic sites of the early Middle Ages, go back to the traditions of Kiev culture. Only one structure from the settlement of Chernechina can be attributed to the yurt-like structures from the Penkovka settlements. Perhaps it testifies to the incorporation into the Slavic environment of certain groups of nomads, passing on to settled life. Also, a structure from the settlement Stetsovka is comparable with the yurt-shaped buildings. Most likely, this settlement was populated by a mixed group — Slavic and foreigners from the south. This composition reflects a complex ethno-cultural situation that emerged in the Middle Dnieper region after disappearance of the Penkovka culture in the 630s — 660s.
Монеты Латинской и Византийской империй из находок на территории Пруто-Днестровья

Монеты Латинской и Византийской империй из находок на территории Пруто-Днестровья
(Coins of the Latin and the Byzantine Empires by the Finds on the Territory of Prut-Dniester Region)

  • Author(s):Andrei V. Crivenco, Mikhail N. Butyrsky
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, 6th to 12th Centuries, 13th to 14th Centuries
  • Page Range:89-95
  • No. of Pages:7
  • Keywords:Prut-Dniester region; Golden Horde period; coins; Latin Empire; Byzantium; Kosteshty; geography of the coin’s finds
  • Summary/Abstract:It is the publication of coins of the Latin Empire and Byzantium (during the rule of the Palaeologus) found in the territory between the Prut and the Dniester. There are 30 billon and copper coins, most of which date back to the reign of the Byzantine emperors Andronicus II (1282—1328) and Andronicus III (1328—1341). This period coincides with the active stage in existence of the Golden Horde settlement in Costești. The geography of the coin finds gives the basis to assume that these coins entered the region through Dobruja and further north through the Danube River in the direction of Costești. Coins of the Latin and Byzantine Empires confirm the hypothesis that there were long-term economic contacts between the Golden Horde settlements of the Prut-Dniester and the Balkan-Black Sea region in the period preceding the formation of the Moldavian state.
Молдавская монета на территории средневековой Таврики (краткий обзор)

Молдавская монета на территории средневековой Таврики (краткий обзор)
(The Moldovan Currency Discovered in Medieval Taurica (short overview))

  • Author(s):Nikolai A. Alexeenko, Lilia V. Dergaciova
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Middle Ages, 13th to 14th Centuries, 15th Century
  • Page Range:97-106
  • No. of Pages:10
  • Keywords:Crimean Peninsula; numismatic; Moldovan medieval coins; groats; half groats; pūl;akche;
  • Summary/Abstract:The article addresses new finds of Moldovan coins minted in the 14th —15th c., recently discovered in the suburbs of Sevastopol on the Crimean peninsula. Most notable among them is a copper coin of Alexander I, with a countermark of the Genoese Caffa.The increasing number of finds of Moldovan coins in the numismatic discoveries on the Crimean peninsula, highlights the question about contacts between the local population and that of Moldovan Principality, but also, though, perhaps, less obviously, disclose the role of the Moldovan currency in the local monetary circulation, which took place not only in the last phase of existence of Italian lands in the second and third quarter of the 15th century, until their conquest by the Ottoman Empire in 1475, but also in the earlier period, since the end of the 14th century.
К вопросу о датировании совместного правления Радамсадия и Рескупорида V

К вопросу о датировании совместного правления Радамсадия и Рескупорида V
(On Dating of the Joint Rule of Rhadamsades and Rhescuporis V)

  • Author(s):Mikhail M. Choref
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Political history, Ancient World
  • Page Range:109-118
  • No. of Pages:10
  • Keywords:Bosporus; Roman period; history; numismatics; Rhadamsades; Rhescuporis V
  • Summary/Abstract:The study was conducted to establish the fact and dating of the joint rule of Rhadamsades and Rhescuporis V. The inscription of CIRB 66 and the coins of these sovereigns became objects of this study. We believe that Rhescuporis V was co-regent of Rhadamsades since his assumption of power. Moreover, these sovereigns were not originally equal, judging by the fact that in the first years of their joint rule, only Rhadamsades had the right to emit money. Rhescuporis V received the right to mint his coins after winning a war with external enemies. Rhadamsades and Rhescuporis V jointly ruled the Kingdom of Bosporus until the former’s death.
Новый тип древнерусского княжеского знака

Новый тип древнерусского княжеского знака
(New Type of the Old Russian Princely Token)

  • Author(s):Serge V. Beletsky
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Political history, Middle Ages, 6th to 12th Centuries
  • Page Range:119-123
  • No. of Pages:5
  • Keywords:Old Rus; princely tokens; sealing marks; Rurik dynasty; Monomach dynasty
  • Summary/Abstract:Another Old Russian sealing mark was found in 2019. On its obverse, there is an image of a bident, and a two-line inscription СВѦ on its reverse, carved in the stamping mold, without allowing for the print. The token on this sealing mark belongs to an earlier unknown type. It was owned by one of Vladimir Monomach’s descendants. Rarity of tokens similar to the discussed one suggests that owners of tokens from this group could make up a small and probably early extinct branch of Rurik family. The bident on the discussed sealing mark could be owned by Svyatopolk († after 1192), one of Mstislav the Great’s grandsons and Vladimir Mstislavich’s son.
Къснономадски пандантиви амулети от района на Долния Дунав

Къснономадски пандантиви амулети от района на Долния Дунав
(Late Nomadic Pendent Amulets from the Lower Danube)

  • Author(s):Yoto Valeriev
  • Language:Bulgarian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Middle Ages, 6th to 12th Centuries
  • Page Range:125-145
  • No. of Pages:21
  • Keywords:Lower Danube; 11th—12th cc.; nomads; Pechenegs (Patzinak); Ouzoi; Cumans; pendent amulets; leaf-shaped; rectangular/trapezium-shaped; lunula/palmetto
  • Summary/Abstract:The article presents the so called late nomadic pendent amulets from the territories on the Lower Danube. They were cast from different metal alloys. The article is supplied by a catalogue of pendants from Bulgaria, Romania and Moldova and a table with metallographic study of some of the amulets.The pendants are attributed to the late nomads: Pechenegs (Patzinak), Ouzoi, and Cumans, and are dated to the 10th—12th centuries. The author divided the pendants in three groups according to their form: 1) leaf-shaped, 2) rectangular/trapezium-shaped, 3) lunula/palmetto form.
Города в кочевых империях Внутренней Азии

Города в кочевых империях Внутренней Азии
(Cities in Nomadic Empires of Inner Asia)

  • Author(s):Nikolay Nikolaevich Kradin
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Cultural history, Social history, 6th to 12th Centuries, 13th to 14th Centuries
  • Page Range:149-170
  • No. of Pages:22
  • Keywords:Inner Asia; nomadism; urbanization; nomadic empires; Xiongnu; Uighurs; Khitans; Mongols
  • Summary/Abstract:The urbanization processes on the Inner Asia during periods of the nomadic empires were studied. Xiongnu had rural settlements and towns, populated mostly by farmers. The Uighur Khaganate had a few fortresses and one imperial trading mega-city. The Liao Empire opened a new stage in the steppe urbanization. The annexation of a growing number of significant agricultural territories to the empire required creation of a more sophisticated mechanism of government. The Khitans built large cities with gorgeous temples and palaces to house the imperial court and the emperor’s officials. There were about fifty known Khitan towns. The excavations of towns show that their population was international. In the beginning of Genghis Khan nomadic empire, the Mongols quite soon felt the deficit of trained specialists in various trades. During the first decades of the existence of their empire, they organized a large scale mobilization of human resources. By means of the forced relocation of large masses of people, or through involving into this process a vast number of adventurers, profiteers and gentlemen of fortune, the Mongols set up the conditions for an unprecedented intercultural exchange and integration of cultures, religions and civilizations. Thus, the Mongol imperial cities appeared.
Золотоордынское городище Конские Воды по письменным источникам, картографическим материалам и археологическим данным

Золотоордынское городище Конские Воды по письменным источникам, картографическим материалам и археологическим данным
(Golden Horde Hillfort Konskie Vody by Written Sources, Cartographic Materials and Archaeological Data)

  • Author(s):Mikhail V. Elnikov
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Cultural history, Middle Ages, 13th to 14th Centuries
  • Page Range:171-190
  • No. of Pages:20
  • Keywords:“north section” of the Crimean Ulus; North-Western Azov Sea region; Konskie Vody hillfort; river Zherebets;mosques;
  • Summary/Abstract:The Konskie Vody hillfort, located on the “northern section” of the Crimean Ulus, was identified on the basis of the data from the “Kniga Bolshomu Chertezhu” (“Book of Great Sketch”). Written sources and cartographic material of the 17th — early 20th centuries allow localizing the site at the intersection of important communication routes, indicate the degree of its destruction and provide additional data on the location of the city’s facilities. Archeological data testify to the syncretism of the material culture of the site, manifesting it in the elements of town planning.
Остатки погребений, металлические, стеклянные и каменные изделия с Увекского городища по архивным данным

Остатки погребений, металлические, стеклянные и каменные изделия с Увекского городища по архивным данным
(The Remains of Burials, Metal, Glass and Stone Wares from the Uvek Hillfort by Archival Materials)

  • Author(s):Leonard Fedorovich Nedashkovsky
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Middle Ages, 13th to 14th Centuries
  • Page Range:191-208
  • No. of Pages:18
  • Keywords:Uvek site; Lower Volga basin; Golden Horde; archival materials;archaeological finds;
  • Summary/Abstract:Archaeological materials (remains of burials, metal, glass and stone wares) of the Uvek site of the Golden Horde time by preserved archival materials are published and briefly characterized in this article. The Uvek hillfort is the largest settlement of the northern part of the Lower Volga region, it is identified as the large Golden Horde city of Ukek and situated in the southern outskirts of modern Saratov. The described archaeological finds have been registered and collected by the Saratov Research Archival Commission and Research Society of regional ethnography ‘Istarkhet’, and then decommissioned and lost for researchers. However, small, and often just minimal information on the found burials and separate objects has been preserved in the Inventory Register of the Museum of the Saratov Research Archival Commission, and in Commission’s archives (their main part is now kept in the State Archive of the Saratov region) and some publications. We have tried to generalize and systematize this information, accompanying the description of archaeological materials (by archival records) with references to the place and time of finds, the person from whom these objects were received, and documents in which they were described. The items listed in the annexed archival materials were obviously found on the Uvek hillfort in 1870s, 1893, 1895, 1897—1898, 1902, 1904—1915 and 1918.
Керамический комплекс как проявление культурного единства оседлого населения европейской части Золотой Орды. Краткий обзор. Общее и частности

Керамический комплекс как проявление культурного единства оседлого населения европейской части Золотой Орды. Краткий обзор. Общее и частности
(Ceramic Complex as a Sign of Cultural Unity of Settled Population of Golden Horde. Brief review. Common and particular)

  • Author(s):Andrei Nikolaevich Maslovskiy
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Cultural history, Middle Ages, 13th to 14th Centuries
  • Page Range:209-236
  • No. of Pages:28
  • Keywords:Eastern Europe; Golden Horde; types of ceramics; pottery tradition; production centers
  • Summary/Abstract:Fragments of ceramics are most numerous groups of finds on the settlements of Golden Horde. Despite the large number of publications, it still seems to be underexplored. It is true, first of all, for the generalizing researches. The article reviews most common and specific features of the Golden Horde ceramics. Its core included vessels produced by archaic method of band pasting, further levelled on potter’s wheel and partially profiled. Specificities of production of such ceramics date back to the traditions of pottery of the early Middle Ages which existed on the territory of Saltovo-Mayatskaya culture. That’s why we suggest to name this technique a post-Saltov pottery tradition. Besides, the Golden Horde towns welcomed potters who were newcomers in the Eastern Europe and used more advanced technologies. Considerable part of their products consisted of glazed vessels which are one of the most salient features of ceramic complex of the Golden Horde. These vessels were of different origins. Along with these groups, there were other locally spread traditions of pottery. Uniformity of ceramic complex most comprehensively characterizes cultural unity of the majority of settled population of the Golden Horde.
Золотые и серебряные браслеты XIII—XIV вв. из Булгарской области Золотой Орды: систематизация, атрибуция и датировка

Золотые и серебряные браслеты XIII—XIV вв. из Булгарской области Золотой Орды: систематизация, атрибуция и датировка
(Gold and Silver Bracelets of the 13th —14th Centuries from the Bulgar Region of the Golden Horde: systematization, attribution and dating)

  • Author(s):Konstantin Aleksandrovich Rudenko
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Cultural history, Middle Ages, 13th to 14th Centuries
  • Page Range:239-262
  • No. of Pages:24
  • Keywords:Middle Volga region; Golden Horde; Bulgar Ulus; bracelets of “Bulgarian type”; zoomorphic decor; typology; dating
  • Summary/Abstract:The article explores one of the product categories that are widespread in the Golden Horde — lamellar bracelets of gold and silver. Special attention is paid to bracelets with the image of the animal mask on the endings. These bracelets are called lionheads or “Bulgarian type” bracelets. The author comes to the conclusion that the mask on these bracelets does not mean a lion or a tiger, but is a generic image-symbol that developed in Central Asia in the 11th—12th centuries. It combines the features of the image of a lion, dragon and tiger. This symbol was perceived as a talisman. The author systematized the finds of precious metal bracelets, examining more than 50 artifacts from the collections of museums in Tatarstan. Artifacts from the collections of the State Hermitage and the State Historical Museum were also attracted. According to the author, a part of these products was imported, and a part was made in Bulgar following the specimens from Iran and other areas of the Golden Horde. They were most common in the second half of the 14th century. The author describes systematic features for dating these bracelets.
Бронзовое зеркало золотоордынского времени из окрестностей села Тея на левобережье Нижнего Днестра

Бронзовое зеркало золотоордынского времени из окрестностей села Тея на левобережье Нижнего Днестра
(A Bronze Mirror of the Golden Horde Time from the Outskirts of the Teia Village on the Left Bank of the Lower Dniester)

  • Author(s):Sergey A. Fidelski, Mikhail M. Choref
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Cultural history, Middle Ages, 13th to 14th Centuries
  • Page Range:263-274
  • No. of Pages:12
  • Keywords:Lower Dniester; 13th—14th centuries; Golden Horde towns; bronze mirrors; settlements; funerary complexes; “Naskh”
  • Summary/Abstract:Metal mirrors of the Golden Horde time were massive material and were widely distributed as items of everyday life and cult. Bronze wares with Arabic well-wishing inscription using Naskh script of handwriting deserve specific attention among the many types of mirrors. They were mainly distributed on the territory of the Golden Horde from the Volga to the Dniester. The specified type of finds includes a fragment of a bronze mirror found in the Teia village (Grigoriopol district) on the left bank of the Lower Dniester. As the analysis has shown, the bronze mirror from Teia is the most Western similar item on the territory of the Golden Horde. The analogies from the burial and settlement sites of the Dnieper-Volga interfluve show that the Teia mirror is one of the late replicas and can be dated no later than the middle of the 14th century. A comprehensive study of such bronze mirrors allows us to solve problems associated with the determination of narrower dates and centers of their production.
Золотоордынский погребальный комплекс с зеркалом с изображением сфинксов на Нижнем Днестре

Золотоордынский погребальный комплекс с зеркалом с изображением сфинксов на Нижнем Днестре
(Golden Horde Grave with a Mirror with the Image of Sphinxes in the Lower Dniester Region)

  • Author(s):Maksym V. Kvitnytskyi, Nicolai P. Telnov, Sergey D. Lysenko, Sergey N. Razumov, Vitalii S. Sinika
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Cultural history, Middle Ages, 13th to 14th Centuries
  • Page Range:275-290
  • No. of Pages:16
  • Keywords:Lower Dniester region; Golden Horde; nomad grave; mirror with Sphinxes; Al-Burāq; Khadjibey
  • Summary/Abstract:In 2018, the Dniester archaeological expedition of the Pridnestrovian State University studied a group of nomadic burials of the Golden Horde time near Glinoe village, Slobodzeya district, on the left bank of the Lower Dniester. One complex stands out, from which the finds of a bronze mirror with the image of two mythical creatures (sphinxes) and an earring in the form of a question mark originate. Both finds are extraordinary among the nomadic antiquities of the Golden Horde time. Analogies to the mirror with the image of Sphinxes were not previously known in the North-Western Black Sea region. An earring in the form of a question mark is a new type of such items, demonstrating the evolution of jewelry with appearance of such innovations as tacking dead bandlets for inserts. The date of the burial was determined within the second half of the 14th — the beginning of the 15th century. The peculiarities of the burial rite make it possible to attribute the complex to representatives of the ruling nomadic group. A study of the dynamics of historical processes that took place in the region during the period of the Golden Horde domination suggests that the grave belonged to a representative of a group of nomads from the suite of Lord Khadjibey.
О некоторых предметах декорировки костюма и украшениях конца XIII — начала XV вв., связанных с золотоордынской традицией

О некоторых предметах декорировки костюма и украшениях конца XIII — начала XV вв., связанных с золотоордынской традицией
(On Some Elements of Costume Decoration and Adornments of the Late 13th — Early 15th Centuries Associated with the Golden Horde Tradition)

  • Author(s):Svetlana S. Ryabtseva
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Fine Arts / Performing Arts, Cultural history, Middle Ages, 13th to 14th Centuries, History of Art
  • Page Range:291-306
  • No. of Pages:16
  • Keywords:Golden Horde; costume decoration; jewelry;cultural traditions;
  • Summary/Abstract:The items of costume decoration and adornments, produced in conformity with the Golden Horde traditions were spread quite widely, from the Volga region to the Balkans. They were worn by both the elite and the plain people. In some cases, local imitations are presented. Some of them (for example, metal tops of caps, earrings in the form of a question mark, a number of plaques for clothes, belt and bag) could be worn by the Adygei, Polovtsi, Early Russians, Lithuanians, East Romance and mixed Balkan population (up to Bulgaria and Macedonia).
Клинковое оружие XII—XV вв. с территории междуречья Верхнего Прута и Среднего Днестра

Клинковое оружие XII—XV вв. с территории междуречья Верхнего Прута и Среднего Днестра
(The Blade Weapon of the 12th—15th Centuries from the Territory between the Upper Prut and the Middle Dniester)

  • Author(s):Igor P. Voznyj
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Military history, Middle Ages, Modern Age, 6th to 12th Centuries, 13th to 14th Centuries, 15th Century, 16th Century
  • Page Range:309-330
  • No. of Pages:22
  • Keywords:Dniester-Prut area; Bukovina; Middle Ages; sword; sabre; guards; falchions; pointed or bladed weapon; horse-rider; warrior;melee of sensations;
  • Summary/Abstract:The article deals with the most popular among the warriors offensive melee facilities weapons, especially swords, medieval sabres, falchions and their components found in the northern part of the Dniester-Prut interfluvial area.The territory of the Northern Bukovina knows 11 swords. The above analysis of blade weapons made it possible to distinguish among them some types of XIIa, XVIа, XVII, and XX according to E. Okshott, dating to 14th—16th centuries. The proposed typology is not exhaustive and definitive, and perhaps further research and new finds will be able to clarify it more.The fragments of the sabre, as well as the saber guards, were found on the studied area. The latter refers to types I, II according to A. Kirpichnikov. The guards are dated by the analogies of the 11th—13th centuries. Among the weapons found in the investigated territory, there are also known two falchions, of cross-guard shape and pommel shape. The falchions are type 1 and 2 according to A. Nadolsky. They are dated by the middle of the 15th — the beginning of the 16th centuries.Thus, it is obvious that the local population from the investigated territory was quite sufficiently armed. Evolution of these weapons was mainstreamed with the general development of the military art in Europe. The territory of the Northern Bukovina in the 12th—16th century was involved into the pan-European political events. And the finds of the advanced weapons of that time serves as evidences to the fact.
Молдо-валашский этнический субстрат в эпоху раннего средневековья: аспекты цивилизационной идентификации в осмыслении румынских историков XX века

Молдо-валашский этнический субстрат в эпоху раннего средневековья: аспекты цивилизационной идентификации в осмыслении румынских историков XX века
(Moldo-Wallachian Ethnic Substrate in the Early Middle Ages: aspects of civilization identification as understood by the Romanian historians of the 20th century)

  • Author(s):Bogdan Mikhaylovich Bodnaryuk
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Anthropology, Middle Ages, Cultural Anthropology / Ethnology, 6th to 12th Centuries, 15th Century
  • Page Range:331-338
  • No. of Pages:8
  • Keywords:Romania; 20th century; ethnogenesis; Carpathian-Danube region; migration processes; Romanian historiography; Moldo-Wallachian substrate; Romanian historians
  • Summary/Abstract:This article examines and analyzes the problem of the emergence, formation, and features of the development of the Moldo -Wallachian substrate during the Early Middle Ages — until the beginning of the formation of state entities, which were later called Danube Principalities. The problem is highlighted at the level of civilization and anthropological characteristics, reflected in the Romanian historiography of the 20th century and presented by many well-known researchers. Special attention is paid to the debatable aspects of the ethnic identification of the population of the Carpathian-Danube region during the Great Migration, examined through the prism of methodological approaches, conceptual statements and interpretative perspectives.
Григорий Цамблак и первое упоминание о Хаджибее

Григорий Цамблак и первое упоминание о Хаджибее
(Grigorij Tsamblak and the First Record of Khadjibey)

  • Author(s):Oleg M. Lugovyi
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Diplomatic history, History of ideas, Middle Ages, 15th Century
  • Page Range:341-348
  • No. of Pages:8
  • Keywords:Northern Black Sea Region; Khadjibey; Jan Długosz; Theodor Chrysoberges; council of Constance; metropolis of Kiev;church union;
  • Summary/Abstract:The exchange of embassies before the election of Grigorij Tsanblak as Kievan Metropolitan caused the meeting of Władysław II Jagiełło and Byzantine embassy in Sniatyn in May 1415. This meeting recorded by Jan Długosz is marked by the mentioning of wheat delivery from the “royal port of Kaczubyeow”. Sniatyn negotiations are not connected with the “nuncios from Constantinople” visit to Krakow in September the same year. This nuncios must have been Theodor Chrysoberges departing to the church council in Konstanz with the proposition of union between Western and Eastern churches in the name of king Władysław. In early 1418 the same proposal was brought to Kostanz by Grigorij Tsamblak in the name of Władysław II, Vitautas, emperor Manuel II and the patriarch of Constantinople altogether.
«Искусный и очень опытный стратег»: военная деятельность Ивана Русина на службе царей Тырновской Болгарии (20—30-е гг. XIV в.)

«Искусный и очень опытный стратег»: военная деятельность Ивана Русина на службе царей Тырновской Болгарии (20—30-е гг. XIV в.)
(“A Skilled and Very Experienced Strategist”: Military Activities of Ivan Rusin in the Service of the Tsars of Tarnovo Bulgaria (20—30s years of the 14th century))

  • Author(s):Andrey Vasilyevich Fedoruk
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Military history, Middle Ages, 13th to 14th Centuries
  • Page Range:349-360
  • No. of Pages:12
  • Keywords:Second Bulgarian Tsardom; 20—30 years of the 14th century; Ivan Rusin; warlord; Byzantine Empire; armies; Serbian Kingdom; wars;Tatars;
  • Summary/Abstract:The article elucidates one of the unexplored historical pages of the relations between Rus and Bulgaria, which is connected with the military activities of Ivan, who was called Rusin, in 20—30s years of the 14th century. Based on the reports of Greek historical essays, the author investigates some selected episodes of the stay of the warlord of Ruthenian origin in the service of the Bulgarian tsars of Terter and Shishman’s dynasties. The author also reveals his prominent role in the defense of Philippopol (1323), the march to Constantinople (1328) and the battle of Rusokastro (1332). Unresolved is the question of Ivan’s participation in the major battle of Velbazhd on July 28, 1330, the controversy of which is connected with the lack of the necessary specific data in narrative sources.
За култа към св. Филотея Търновска в средновековна България и Влахия

За култа към св. Филотея Търновска в средновековна България и Влахия
(The Cult of St. Phylotea of Tarnovo in Medieval Bulgaria and Wallachia)

  • Author(s):Plamen Pavlov
  • Language:Bulgarian
  • Subject(s):History, History of ideas, Middle Ages, 13th to 14th Centuries, History of Religion
  • Page Range:361-366
  • No. of Pages:6
  • Keywords:Bulgaria; Wallachia; Moldavia; Tarnovo; Curtea de Argeş; St. Phylothea
  • Summary/Abstract:Evolution of the cult of St. Phylotea from Tarnavo is examined, whose relics were moved in the end of 14th century to Curtea de Arges, the old capital of Wallachia. It is paradoxical, yet there is a different story about the Saint’s life in the North Danube area, which has nothing in common with the passional written by Patriarch Euthymius of Tarnovo. Folklore tells that that Phylotea was Bulgarian, born in Tarnovo in the beginning of 13th century. The author suggests a hypothesis that the legendary story of this Saint comes from Tarnovo. He poses a question about the cult of St. Phylotea in Medieval Moldavia, which is not examined.
Рождение историка-болгариста и общественника

Рождение историка-болгариста и общественника
(Birth of a Historian-Bulgarist and Social Activist)

  • Author(s):Ivan F. Grek
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Essay|Book Review |Scientific Life, Societal Essay, Scientific Life
  • Page Range:367-374
  • No. of Pages:8
Отново за датировката и произхода на пафтите — corrigenda et addenda (По повод колекция в Дуловския музей от с. Окорш, Силистренско)

Отново за датировката и произхода на пафтите — corrigenda et addenda (По повод колекция в Дуловския музей от с. Окорш, Силистренско)
(Once Again about the Dating and Origin of the Clasps Called Pafta — corrigenda et addenda (On the occasion of the collection in the museum of Dulovo, found in the area of Okorsh, Silistra region))

  • Author(s):Georgi Atanasov, Kaloyan Dimov
  • Language:Bulgarian
  • Subject(s):History, Anthropology, Fine Arts / Performing Arts, Customs / Folklore, Middle Ages, Modern Age, Cultural Anthropology / Ethnology, History of Art
  • Page Range:377-394
  • No. of Pages:18
  • Keywords:Dobrogea; Silistra kaza; museum of Dulovo; Okorsh village; pafta; aleviti
  • Summary/Abstract:A collection of late medieval and early Renaissance finds stored in the museum of Dulovo; the items were found south-east of Okorsh village, Dulovo municipality, Silistra region. Out there, in the area called „Beiska mahala”, a big Ottoman-time settlement was found, which is possibly the original source of the finds, which include 36 pafta clasps discussed in the article.According to the numismatic information and the dating of the other finds, the settlement can be dated within the 17th and the first half of the 19th century. According to an Ottoman census of 1676, a village called Abdarrahman seems to be listed in Silistra kaza.The pafta clasps from the collection of Dulovo museum can be divided into 5 types, with their own subtypes. The first type includes small round, cup-shaped pafta clasps, without ornament. Most of the clasps have granular trimming on the periphery, always with a small sharp widening. There are no analogues from closed archaeological sites dated within the period from the 10th to the 14th century. Surely, the dated finds from Niculitel and Silistra are dated within the 17th — the 18th centuries. The second type are round, cup-shaped pafta clasps with a stylized rosette in the center. This type has three subtypes. Most of the clasps are with granular trimming on the periphery, with a small sharp widening. Surely, dated finds from necropolis in Romania are from the period of the 17th—18th centuries. The third type are cup-shaped pafta clasps with radial ornament. This type is a stylized variant of the pafta clasps with a rosette in the center. There are no finds dated within the 10th—16th centuries. The finds from the graves around the church in Arnautkoy village (Poroishte, Bulgaria) are dated within the 17th—18th centuries. The fourth type are shield-like paftas, divided in five subtypes. According to the analogies from surely dated archaeological sites — the church in Arnautkoy and Corinth, we can assume that this type is dated within 18th century. Subtype IVa is dated later — by the first half of the 19th century. The fifth type are leaf-shaped pafta clasps. According to their form, we can add to this type two belt applications with a shape of pafta clasps. According to some analogies from Isakcha, we can date them back in 18th—19th century. According to the surely dated finds, we came to the conclusion that until 16th century the pafta clasps are unknown type of jewelry. The first appearance of pafta clasps on the Balkans and in Bulgaria can be dated by the beginning or the mid of the 17th century. One way for their appearance in this area could be transfer of traditions from Asia Minor, due to relocation of hundreds of Alevi (Shiite) villages in 16th—17th centuries in Eastern Bulgaria.
Замок Хаджибей: история исследований, датировки, локализация

Замок Хаджибей: история исследований, датировки, локализация
(The Khadzhibey Castle: History of Research, Dating, Localization)

  • Author(s):Andrew V. Krasnozhon
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Military history, Middle Ages, Modern Age, 15th Century, 16th Century, 17th Century, 18th Century
  • Page Range:395-412
  • No. of Pages:18
  • Keywords:North-West Black Sea Region; Middle Ages; New Time; fortification; Lithuanian Kachubeyov; Ottoman Khadzhibey
  • Summary/Abstract:The solution of the problem of localization of the Khadzhibey castle on the territory of modern Odessa became possible due to the first geo-radar exploration in the area of its most probable existence. The work revealed at a depth of more than 2 m an anomaly that coincides in size and contours with the plans of the stone castle in Khadzhibey, known by cartographic materials of the 1780s. The castle was located opposite the modern houses no. 4—5 on Primorsky Boulevard. The depth of occurrence corresponds to the horizon of the surface of the Khadzhibey period, revealed by the expedition of A. O. Dobrolyubsky during excavations near the Vorontsov Palace in 1997.The castle existed at this place (almost unchanged) in the period from the 1420s to the 1790s. It was built in connection with the defensive initiatives of Witold or T. Buczacki. In 1593, the Turks attempted to reconstruct the castle. In 1765, the structure was slightly modernized — a coastal artillery battery was added from the north-east, coastal side. In 1789, it was incapacitated by blasting two mines. After 1794, it was disassembled to harvest building materials.
Влияние польско-турецкого соперничества второй половины XVII в. на военно-политическую ситуацию в Карпато-Днестровском регионе

Влияние польско-турецкого соперничества второй половины XVII в. на военно-политическую ситуацию в Карпато-Днестровском регионе
(The Influence of the Polish-Turkish Rivalry in the Second Half of the 17th Century on the Military and Political Situation in the Carpathian-Dniester Region)

  • Author(s):Oleksii V. Balukh
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Diplomatic history, Military history, Political history, 17th Century
  • Page Range:413-423
  • No. of Pages:11
  • Keywords:Bukovina; Moldavia; Poland; the Ottoman Empire; Chernivtsi; military-political relations; Khotyn fortress
  • Summary/Abstract:The second half of the 17th century was characterized by aggravation of relations between the Ottoman Empire and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Since 1650, Moldavia was a vassal of Turkey. Military-political situation of Bukovina’s lands as a part of Moldavia was characterized by constant interference of Polish and Turkish-Tatar troops in the Moldavian internal Moldavian affairs. Polish kings tried to keep Moldavia under their influence and occasionally sent troops there, that ravaged and plundered primarily borderlands with Poland, especially the territories of Chernivtsi and Khotyn districts. It was the time when the role of Khotyn fortress grew up, which continued to preserve its strategic importance.So, Bukovina’s land was at the forefront of the struggle between the Ottoman Empire and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as during 1650—1699 both countries wished to extend their authority over Moldavia, and therefore — over Bukovina. As a consequence, from the second half of the 17th century, Bukovina was exposed to military and political events, and the authority over the land passed from hand to hand.
Терминологический аспект в изучении однонефных храмов средневекового Крыма

Терминологический аспект в изучении однонефных храмов средневекового Крыма
(Terminological Aspect in Studies of Single-Nave Basilicas in the Medieval Crimea)

  • Author(s):Vladimir P. Kirilko
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Fine Arts / Performing Arts, Architecture, Middle Ages, History of Art
  • Page Range:427-448
  • No. of Pages:22
  • Keywords:Crimea; Medieval Ages; ecclesiastical architecture; basilica-like church without aisles; basilican church; church without aisles; chapel; architectural term
  • Summary/Abstract:Smaller churches with one apse and the nave rectangular in plan — undomed and without pillars to divide its internal space in bays — are the most common type of medieval churches in the Crimea. Such religious structures, rather diversified, are spread across the peninsula and include the majority of all existing churches today. The choice of terminology plays an increasingly important role in their studies, due to controversial use of such terms as ‘basilica’, ‘single-nave basilica’ or ‘basilica-type building’ to define them. The present study led to the following three conclusions. 1. When making a choice between functional and architectural approach, if a definition of an archaeological object is required, the second approach should be preferred. 2. It is unacceptable either to refer to those church structures, which do not have such characteristic features as ‘basilican section’ and ‘basilican lighting’, as basilicas, or to attribute them to ‘basilican type’, in order to avoid distorting the mere idea of it as a structure and its architectonic. 3. ‘Single-nave temple’ seems to be the most suitable term to use for the typological identification of such buildings (or, the full term would be: ‘a church, rectangular in plan, with one-part nave and a semicircular/faceted ‘apse’), or a ‘chapel’.
Проблемът за средновековните сезонни селища от територията на дн. Югоизточна България (трансхуманс или номадизъм)

Проблемът за средновековните сезонни селища от територията на дн. Югоизточна България (трансхуманс или номадизъм)
(The Problem of the Seasonal Settlements on the Territory of Today’s South-Eastern Bulgaria (Transhumance or Nomadism))

  • Author(s):Boris D. Borisov
  • Language:Bulgarian
  • Subject(s):History, Anthropology, Social Sciences, Archaeology, Middle Ages, Cultural Anthropology / Ethnology
  • Page Range:449-465
  • No. of Pages:17
  • Keywords:South-Eastern Bulgaria; medieval seasonal settlements; nomadic camp; alpine stock-breeding; transhumance;nomadism;
  • Summary/Abstract:The study addresses the problem of the medieval seasonal settlements from today’s South-Eastern Bulgaria. Three of them are located on the territory of the mining and electricity complex of “Maritsa-Iztok”. Two of them are entirely excavated and are situated on the land of Gledachevo village, the third one is partially studied and is located nearby Polski Gradets village, and the last one — in the area of “Shihanov bryag” nearby the city of Harmanly.Archaeological data undoubtedly points to the fact that there is no cultural layer in any of the seasonal settlements. There are neither archaeological materials nor artefacts excluding some pottery pieces. There are no graveyards, which once again is a proof of the brief habitation in these areas. According to the ethnographical data, there are four basic types of stock-breeding. The first is the so-called Alpine or mountain stockbreeding, the second one — transhumance, the third one — nomadism, and the fourth one — stationary livestock farming.The analysis of the archaeological and ethnographical data allows us to infer that, for the time being, there is no connection between seasonal settlements and transhumance or nomadism. Anyway, there is no doubt that they are related to the mobile stock-breeding.
Мнимое княжество Киркельское в Юго-Западном Крыму XIII—XV вв.

Мнимое княжество Киркельское в Юго-Западном Крыму XIII—XV вв.
(The Imaginary Kirkel Principality in South-Western Crimea (13th—15th Centuries))

  • Author(s):Victor L. Mytz
  • Language:Russian
  • Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Political history, Middle Ages, 13th to 14th Centuries, 15th Century
  • Page Range:467-474
  • No. of Pages:8
  • Keywords:Golden Horde; Jochi’s Ulus; Crimean Khanate; 13th—18th centuries; Kirkelskoe knyazhestvo (Qirq Yer Principality); Qirq Yer; Chufut-Kale; Yashlau beys; Sarimambas-Kermen
  • Summary/Abstract:The brief overview of the current studies on Qirq Yer discussed here demonstrates that, in spite of all academic attempts, a number of questions regarding history of this place in 13th—15th centuries are still unanswered. The suggested dates for the Mongol conquest of the town in 13th century (1238, 1260, 1298/99) or 14th century (1342—1363) are not supported by archaeological evidence. No real sources of 13th—15th centuries are known to witness presence of Yashlau beys and Kudulak family (clan) in the Crimea. Not even khan’s jarligs of 1459 and 1468 released to the residents of Qirq Yer mention them. All along this period between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries, no “Alan” or “Tartar” name of a prince of Qirq Yer is known, nor there is any information of whatever ‘principality’ that existed here. Hence, there are no grounds to discuss existence of a certain Kirkel Principality in 13th—15th centuries.
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