ANCIENT COINAGE IN CENTRAL, EASTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE PRIOR TO THE MIDDLE AGES - AN OVERVIEW / PIENIĄDZ ANTYCZNY NA TERENIE EUROPY
ŚRODKOWEJ, WSCHODNIEJ I PÓŁNOCNEJ PRZED OKRESEM ŚREDNIOWIECZA - ZARYS PROBLEMU
Keywords: ancient coins; coins finds; Roman period; Migration period; Barbaricum
The chapter is focused on the subject of the pre-medieval influx and uses of ancient (i.e. Greek, Celtic and Roman) coins in Central, Eastern and Northern Europe an understanding of which is crucial for the study of their origin and uses in the Middle Ages and the modern period. The oldest coins found in Central, Eastern and Northern Europe, i.e. in the territory of European Barbaricum, are Greek coins, but definitely the largest category of ancient coins found there are Roman Imperial denarii of the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. Given the sheer number of denarii brought in, and the size of the territory across which they spread, this was a phenomenon on a scale never observed before and thus in our study area, too. The presence in the finds of issues of other denominations (in gold, silver, or in copper and its alloys) and of other dates (till the 6th century AD) is much lower, but one cannot exclude a possibility of discovery of almost any kind of ancient coins in Central, Eastern and Northern Europe.
Keywords: ancient coins; Roman coins; coin finds; coin hoards; early medieval context; monetary circulation
Ancient coins, almost exclusively Roman denarii from the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, constitute a very small percentage of hoards and other assemblages dated by the latest coins to the Early Middle Ages. The coins occur in hoards apparently falling into an older, 10th–early 11th century group of finds from Greater Poland and Silesia, and a later, 11th century group from Pomerania (Pomorze). Possible causes of such a distinction might be differences in money market control systems or in the direction of the coin influx. A closer analysis of the coins and their distribution suggests that ancient coins had functioned as a means of payment in that time. Unlike similar finds recorded in Scandinavia, Roman denarii were not used in Poland in the Early Middle Ages as ornaments/amulets. The discoveries made at the cemetery at Dziekanowice, and possibly also on the settlement complex at Tum, show that some of the ancient coins derive from ancient coin finds made in the vicinity during the Early Middle Ages.
ROMAN COINS FROM LATE MEDIEVAL AND MODERN PERIOD FINDS IN THE TERRITORY OF PRESENT-DAY POLAND / MONETY RZYMSKIE ZE ZNALEZISK
PÓŹNOŚREDNIOWIECZNYCH I NOWOŻYTNYCH Z OBSZARU WSPÓŁCZESNEJ POLSKI
Author(s): Grzegorz Śnieżko / Language(s): English,Polish
/ Publication Year: 0
Keywords: ancient coins; Roman coins; coin finds; coin hoards; late medieval context; modern context; monetary circulation
The paper discusses the issue of presence of ancient coins in late medieval and modern period finds from the territory of Poland. The analysis demonstrated that these finds solely contained specimens of the Roman Empire. They have been recorded in three late medieval and six modern period hoards. What is more, such coins were also found in archaeological contexts that imply that they may have been used as foundation sacrifices (two cases), or as a pendant, perhaps of devotional nature (one case). They were also given as money offerings in churches and were used as bullion sources as well as for ornamental purposes. In three urban centres such coins were found in the course of archaeological research from settlement layers and features. A diversification of coins with regard to their chronology and denominations demonstrates a correlation with waves of inflow of Roman coins to the Polish lands in antiquity, reconstructed on the basis of numismatic finds. This implies that Roman coins in the Late Middle Ages and in the modern period came from incidental discoveries of money which had been deposited in Roman times. Late medieval and modern period hoards with Roman coins are remarkable for the presence of money of very diversified origin and chronology. This seems to demonstrate that in the majority of such cases, the Roman coins had probably been used as currency. On the other hand, it is impossible to completely reject the assumption that at least in some cases these coins became part of hoards for reasons related to folk beliefs.
ANCIENT COINS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS: MEDIEVAL AND MODERN WRITTEN SOURCES FROM POLISH LANDS / MONETY ANTYCZNE ORAZ ICH FUNKCJE W ŚWIETLE ŚREDNIOWIECZNYCH I NOWOŻYTNYCH ŹRÓDEŁ PISANYCH Z ÓWCZESNYCH ZIEM POLSKICH
Author(s): Tomasz Maćkowski / Language(s): English,Polish
/ Publication Year: 0
Keywords: ancient coins; written sources; medieval and modern history of Poland
There is evidence that during the medieval and modern period, ancient coins in the Polish lands had different functions, ranging from that of currency to personal ornament. This is revealed by the analysis of their archaeological context when recovered during archaeological excavation. However, all too often the interpretation of the archaeological sources might be affected by the presentist limitations of researchers – which make it harder to grasp the historical reality, encourage the construction of poorly substantiated hypotheses, and generally leading them astray. Therefore, every piece of written evidence which is an expression of the mentality of the people of that age is invaluable for our purpose. In the Middle Ages, very little was written about ancient coins. The earliest reference to them comes from 1445 where they are called “Saint John’s pennies” because of the perceived resemblance of the emperor’s head depicted on them to the image of the severed head of Saint John on a platter. Among the simple folk, this belief was deeply ingrained. As everywhere in Europe a fundamental change came with the beginning of the Renaissance. Roman coins found locally and those brought from Western Europe started attracting wider attention. This is reflected in the written record. The 16th century saw the production of the first treatise on the Hebrew monetary system penned by S. Grzepski. Numerous collections were established. Next to monarchs and members of aristocracy, a major role was played by the inhabitants of three cities found in the Baltic province – Toruń, Elbląg and most of all, Gdańsk. This collecting activity generated collections and auction catalogues that have come down to us. The nobility was ready to view the Roman denarii found in Polish lands as a material historical source confirming their mythical descent from Sarmatians. Furthermore, the iconography of ancient coins provided a model for 17th and 18th century coins, tokens and medals.
THE “SECOND LIFE” OF ANCIENT COINS IN EASTERN EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE AGES AND THE MODERN PERIOD / „DRUGIE ŻYCIE” ANTYCZNYCH MONET W EUROPIE WSCHODNIEJ W ŚREDNIOWIECZU I NOWOŻYTNOŚCI
Keywords: denarius; Eastern Europe; Kievan Rus; Golden Horde; den’ga; hoard
The study of ancient coin finds recorded in Eastern Europe in later contexts is a relatively new research problem for this territory. In fact, this publication is the first attempt at a general analysis of this issue. The catalogue of finds contains twenty nine find spots, of which twenty four may be considered reliable. The smallest number of coins dates from the early medieval period. Not a single ancient coin was recorded in a context dated to the Pre-Kievan Rus’ Period (6th–9th centuries), and only three to the period of Kievan Rus (9th–13th centuries), all of them recovered in the north-western territories of Kievan Rus’). Consequently, there is no evidence to uphold the hypothesis of V. Yanin on the derivation of the early Rus’ weight system from the weight standard of the Roman denarius. The late medieval context is represented by thirteen reliable find spots, most of them associated with the Golden Horde hillforts of the Volga region. There is much to suggest the reuse of Late Roman copper coins within the population of the Golden Horde period. Another interesting subject is the possible influence of the iconography of Roman coins on the emergence of some types of late medieval Russian coins. Finally, eight reliable finds have yielded ancient coins found in a modern period context. Most of them are Roman denarii. Their similarity in size with the main 16th–17th century silver denominations of Europe may be treated as evidence that some of them participated in the local monetary circulation. On the other hand, the discovery of ancient coins, made into jewellery or as collectibles, suggests that the possession of a Roman coin also played a prestigious role at this time.
THE USE AND REUSE OF ROMAN COINS IN VIKING, MEDIEVAL AND MODERN PERIOD SWEDEN / UŻYTKOWANIE I WTÓRNE WYKORZYSTYWANIE MONET RZYMSKICH W SZWECJI W OKRESIE WIKIŃSKIM, ŚREDNIOWIECZU I NOWOŻYTNOŚCI
Keywords: Roman coins; archaeology; coin-pendants; long term; past in the past
This article aims at understanding the presence of Roman coins in Viking, medieval and modern period Sweden from an archaeological point of view. It considers all sorts of finds comprising Roman coins, as long as the contexts in which they occur can be dated with sufficient precision. Four main phases are distinguished: early Viking Age ( Phase I: c. 750–990), late Viking Age (Phase II: c. 990–1150), Medieval period (Phase III: c. 1150–1500) and Modern period (Phase IV: c. 1500–c. 1800). Differences in quantity, use and perception clearly emerge between phases. These differences seem to depend mainly on the socio-economic context and the amount of information available for the coins. The fact whether the Roman coins were kept in circulation since they were brought to Sweden in Roman times, were rediscovered at ancient sites or were imported at a late point also seems to have played a very important role in how these coins were perceived.
FINDS OF ANCIENT COINS FROM THE VIKING AGE TO MODERN PERIODS IN THE TERRITORIES OF DENMARK / ZNALEZISKA MONET ANTYCZNYCH OD OKRESU WIKIŃSKIEGO DO CZASÓW WSPÓŁCZESNYCH Z TERENÓW DANII
Keywords: roman coins; coin finds; Viking context; medieval context; modern context
The article presents examples of finds of ancient coins from Medieval and later contexts in Denmark. It shows that a low number of Roman bronze coins appear in Early Medieval (Viking Age) contexts, notably in and around the Early Medieval emporium at Ribe, while Roman denarii in slightly later silver hoards seems to be a phenomenon so far restricted to the area around the Baltic coast. There is so far little archaeological evidence for the use of Roman coins in medieval religious contexts, and the well documented evidence for the presence of large numbers of Roman coins in Renaissance and later collections is not reflected by unambiguous traces in the archaeological record. Examples of ‘hoards’ of ancient coins that must have been deposited (or lost) recently highlight the problem of dating the deposition (or loss) of Roman coins from fids without a context. Two recent, and so far unique finds, of Roman gold coins from a Viking Age hoard, and the possible use of a sestertius for a Viking Age/medieval brooch are presented.
ANCIENT COINS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS DURING THE MIDDLE AGES AND EARLY MODERN ERA IN THE TERRITORY OF EASTERN GERMANY / MONETY ANTYCZNE I ICH FUNKCJE W ŚREDNIOWIECZU I WCZESNEJ EPOCE NOWOŻYTNEJ NA TERYTORIUM NIEMIEC WSCHODNICH
Author(s): Felix Biermann / Language(s): English,Polish
/ Publication Year: 0
Keywords: Ancient coins; Middle Ages; early modern era; eastern Germany; re-use of Roman and Byzantine coins
The paper deals with the question of the re-use of ancient (mainly Roman) coins during the Middle Ages and the early modern era in the former Slavic-settled parts of Eastern (and Northern) Germany. From the 10th/11th century, there is evidence for the re-use of Roman coins, best recognizable with single Roman coins in early medieval silver hoards and with Roman coins probably used as foundation offerings under buildings in the early Modern Era. In view of the few and often not certainly contextualised finds, however, it seems that the re-use of ancient coins was not a distinct phenomenon and was based mainly on incidental finds that were appreciated because of their metal value.
James Clifford (1988) in his seminal book The Predicament of Culture analyses deceptive accounts of other cultures presented from one’s own perspective. Drawing on this analysis I would like to reflect on examinations and certification looking at quantitative evaluation seen from the qualitative standpoint as well as at qualitative assessment viewed from the quantitative stance.
Keywords: academic writing; academic literacy; construct; English as a Lingua Franca; communicative competence
The paper argues that recent research has alerted us to the changing nature of the use of language in communication in contemporary societies. In relation to the assessment of academic writing, particularly with reference to English, it is suggested that there is a need to broaden the concept of construct. I will draw on studies in English as a Lingua Franca and informal logic of argument to support my argument.
The aim of this paper is to reflect on the method of assessing the B2 English writing subtest in the context of English certification exams administered by the University of Warsaw Council for the Certification of Language Proficiency. The paper starts with a brief discussion of two types of assessment: holistic and analytical. Next, the results of a qualitative study conducted among the raters of the English language certification exams are presented. The aim of the study – of a pro-quality nature – was to determine which of the two types of assessment (analytical vs holistic) results in a more reliable and accurate assessment of candidates’ language skills.
Keywords: test construct; interactional competence; paired format; Conversation Analysis; test users’ perceptions
The paired format of a speaking test appears to offer a more interactionally symmetric alternative to traditionally used Oral Proficiency Interviews (OPIs) (e.g., Lazaraton, 1992, 1996; van Lier, 1989). This article focuses on two paired tasks, a simulated discussion and a problem-solving task, which have been developed to enhance the construct of the speaking test which is currently used at the Jagiellonian Language Centre at the Jagiellonian University.
Keywords: certification of language fluency; certification exams; language rule; variety of language forms
The paper is a description and analysis of some language features in the tasks used in certification exams of Polish. The problem with these features is connected with the two-level language rule in Polish, the variety of language forms and the type of language style.
Certyfikacja biegłości języka włoskiego a potrzeby studentów szkół wyższych
Author(s): Marta Kaliska / Language(s): English,Polish
/ Publication Year: 0
Keywords: Italian language; certificate; language proficiency; Italian language policy; students’ needs
The present paper aims at presenting Italian language proficiency certificates offered by Italian universities and other institutions. A particular focus was put on such certification features which better address the university students’ needs.
Keywords: level of language proficiency; test task; communicative competence
The condition for obtaining a C1 and C2 language proficiency certificate is communicative competence approaching the level of the native speaker. When developing Russian language certification tests, one should take into account its typological, grammatical and historical-cultural features. These include the synthetic nature of expressing typical meanings, the inflective way of expressing grammatical meanings and weakly expressed regional and dialectal differences. One should also consider the modification of the listening comprehension tests at level C1.
Keywords: Hebrew language; certification; language assessment; language teaching methodology; small languages
This paper discusses difficulties associated with developing Hebrew certification exams and preparing students to pass the exam in accordance with the CEFR standards. These difficulties are mainly related to the discrepancy between the main assumptions of the Hebrew language teaching methodology in Israel and the requirements for foreign language courses and certification exams at the University of Warsaw.
Keywords: certification exam; A2 level; multiple choice test; cultural aspect; courtesy words
One of the elements tested during an exam is the ability to interact in particular communication situations. This skill is not only based on understanding the senders’ message (i.e. words) and the context of the utterance (situation), but on the knowledge of the conventional typical answer. The Turkish language, which, like most oriental languages, has a very extensive system of polite expressions, forces its users to know about 100 standardized formulas.
Keywords: language for specific purposes; testing; language certificate; language levels; dual competence
A certificate in a foreign language is an important asset in the modern labour market: it certifies communication skills in a foreign language, although it does not guarantee the reliability of certified competences in specific professional situations. Certification of communication skills in the field of languages for specific purposes should include both assessment of language and professional skills, and thus certify the so-called learners’ dual competence. This paper aims to diagnose and discuss the real problems encountered in practice in the assessment of dual competences of learners of specialized languages.
Oczekiwania wobec kompetencji językowych żołnierzy a certyfikacja ich biegłości – STANAG 6001
Author(s): Anna Iwanowska / Language(s): English,Polish
/ Publication Year: 0
Keywords: military language; STANAG 6001; standards; certification; Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning; teaching; assessment; Polish Armed Forces; Polish General Staff
This paper discusses the specificity of the certification of specialized language varieties. The subject of the analysis and reflection is the certification of proficiency in military language according to the STANAG 6001 standards. The paper reviews detailed requirements for the individual linguistic skills, as well as the nature and the design of the exam along with the examples of the tasks for each proficiency level. Th e discussion is supplemented with teaching implications relevant specifically for the STANAG 6001 exams.
Exploiting CEFR descriptors in developing pre-service teachers’ language assessment literacy (Ukrainian context)
Author(s): Olga Ukrayinska / Language(s): English,Polish
/ Publication Year: 0
Keywords: CEFR descriptors; language assessment literacy; pre-service FL teachers in Ukraine
Teachers and researchers of foreign languages have been concerned about integrating CEFR descriptors into teaching and assessment practices for some time now. Due to its reference nature, the CEFR is open for interpretation and its use therefore requires initial training. The chapter presents the theoretical background to such training and sample activities used to help Ukrainian pre-service FL teachers to operationalize the CEFR.
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