European Islam. Challenges for Public Policy and Society
European Islam. Challenges for Public Policy and Society
Contributor(s): Samir Amghar (Editor), Amel Boubekeur (Editor), Michael Emerson (Editor)
Subject(s): Politics / Political Sciences, Politics, Political Theory, Security and defense, Politics and religion, Inter-Ethnic Relations
Published by: CEPS Centre for European Policy Studies
Keywords: European Islam; Challenges for Society; Public Policy; juxtaposition of national case studies; European experts; transnational phenomenon;
Summary/Abstract: Works on Islam in Europe often read like a juxtaposition of national case studies covering the history and perhaps the sociology of immigrant groups in the countries considered. Although the sociology of Islam is well-developed in certain European countries such as France, Germany and the UK, it is only in its infancy as a discipline at the European level. The chapters in this work, by leading European experts in the field, therefore aim to supply policy-makers, analysts and civil society leaders with an inventory of the main issues concerning the presence of Islam in Europe. The key message is that European Islam exists as a powerful transnational phenomenon, and European policy must keep pace with this reality.
Series: CEPS Paperback Series
- Print-ISBN-13: 978-92-9079-710-4
- Page Count: 227
- Publication Year: 2007
- Language: English
Political Islam in Europe
Political Islam in Europe
(Political Islam in Europe)
- Author(s):Amel Boubekeur
- Language:English
- Subject(s):Governance, Public Law, Politics and religion
- Page Range:14-37
- No. of Pages:24
- Summary/Abstract:Europe is currently home to an extremely diverse landscape of political Islamic movements. This diversity is even greater than in most Muslim countries, where ideological Islamic expression is often limited by the official ideology of the state. In Europe, these movements are often mobilised in defence of European Muslim interests; they work for the recognition of Islam or as its spokesperson in dealing with European states or with the majority of Muslims who are not concerned with political Islam. These movements have been present in Europe for a long while now (between 20 and 40 years for most of them) but their daily realities are still not well known to European policy-makers, neither at the European, national nor local level. This presentation of the European landscape of political Islam does not aim to be exhaustive. We will concentrate on those movements that are the most active in the political sphere and whose political evolution is the most significant, such as the Islamists in exile from the Muslim world, the UIOE (Union of Islamic Organisations of Europe), the Muslim Brotherhood, the Milli Görüs and political Sufism such as the Participation and Muslim Spirituality movement or the Ahbash. Finally, we will also look at missionary and predicative movements such as the Tabligh and Salafism. We will thus not be looking at jihadist movements or at Shi’ism, nor will we deal with the cultural and ethnic management of certain Turkish, North African, Arab or Indo-Pakistani Islamic movements.
Salafism and Radicalisation of Young European Muslims
Salafism and Radicalisation of Young European Muslims
(Salafism and Radicalisation of Young European Muslims)
- Author(s):Samir Amghar
- Language:English
- Subject(s):Governance, Public Law, Politics and religion
- Page Range:38-51
- No. of Pages:14
- Keywords:Salafism;
- Summary/Abstract:European Islam is more than half a century old. Since the end of the 1980s, a new form of religiosity has emerged among young people of North African, Turkish or Indo-Pakistani origin, some of whom were born in Europe. This new variation of Islam was first of all largely the result of ‘reislamisation’ movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood. However, the 1990s also saw the emergence of another movement in the ‘re-islamisation’ dynamics in Europe: Salafism. It is possible to distinguish three streams of Salafism here. The first is revolutionary; it places ‘jihad’ at the heart of religious beliefs. The second is predicative Salafism, which bases its actions on preaching and religious teachings. The last is political Salafism, which organises its activities around a political logic. Each one of these currents entertains a specific relationship with European societies, with Muslim societies and with the means – including jihad – of hastening the eventuality of the Islamic state. The new relationship towards Islamic teachers that is prevalent among these young people is not simply the reproduction of the communitarian religiosity of their parents. If the religious affiliation of the previous generation was founded on an ethno-national logic, as well as on the dominance of traditional attitudes towards religion, these young people refuse to reproduce the inclinations of their parents. Until the beginning of the 1990s, both the Muslim Brotherhood and the Tabligh, played a central role in re-islamisation, effectively enjoying a monopoly in the supply of Islam to Europe. Since then, we have witnessed the diversification of this supply with the arrival of new actors. Among them, Salafism, a once marginal group in Europe, has become a pillar of re-islamisation at the beginning of the 21st century, competing with the more traditional structures. While both the Muslim Brotherhood and the Tabligh present a doctrinal and organisational homogeneity, Salafism appears to be a movement that is both pluralist and contradictory, of which it is necessary to identify its multiple European components.
Islamic Terrorist Radicalisation in Europe
Islamic Terrorist Radicalisation in Europe
(Islamic Terrorist Radicalisation in Europe)
- Author(s):Olivier Roy
- Language:English
- Subject(s):Governance, Public Law, Politics and religion
- Page Range:52-60
- No. of Pages:9
- Keywords:Terrorism;
- Summary/Abstract:The West European terrorist Since 9/11, a great deal of data has been accumulated on the terrorists linked to al Qaeda. The picture that emerges shows the growing role played by Western Muslims. They constitute the bulk of the terrorists involved in actions perpetrated here in Europe. But they are also involved in terrorist actions abroad and participate in the different international military jihad (from Faluja to Kashmir). These Western Muslims have varied personal histories and include different categories: the majority are second-generation Muslims who were either born in Europe or came as children; we also find people who came as students or as political refugees; thirdly, there has been a significant number of converts. They all share common patterns. They speak European languages, are Western educated, and many have citizenship of a European country. They have had a ‘normal’ Western teenager’s upbringing, with no conspicuous religious practices, often going to night clubs, ‘womanising’ and drinking alcohol. None have previous religious training. Most of them are born-again (or converts): they became religious-minded Muslims in Europe, even if a few of them, in the aftermath of (re)discovering Islam, went to Middle Eastern madrasa (school or college) to improve their religious knowledge (this is mainly true of British Pakistanis and of converts). When they went to university, their curricula were modern and secular (computer science, engineering, etc.). In many ways they are modern.
Economic Development of Muslim Communities
Economic Development of Muslim Communities
(Economic Development of Muslim Communities)
- Author(s):Imane Karich
- Language:English
- Subject(s):Governance, Public Law, Politics and religion
- Page Range:62-76
- No. of Pages:15
- Summary/Abstract:This chapter gives an overview of the current economic development of European Muslim communities and suggests initiatives that could be taken to improve the situation. The exercise was quite challenging since there is an absence of reliable statistics and figures on Muslim communities in Europe. Since 9/11, several subjects have monopolised the main discourses on Muslim communities: the debate around the radicalisation of Muslims, their integration and so-called ‘identity’, their visibility and their necessary adaptation into the host society. In a contemporary Europe characterised by the secularisation and privatisation of religious identity, the presence of Muslim communities claiming their faith is perceived by some as disturbing. On the other hand, socio-economic issues such as unemployment, discrimination and exclusion, while given less attention in the current debate, are at the same time considered to be causes of extremism and terrorism, and by the Muslims themselves as their most important worry for their future. As advocated by some sociologists, it is imperative to get away from the essentialism that dominates reflections on Islam and the Muslim communities in Europe. Pointing to Islam, its practices and ist visibility as the main reason for the problems of integration risks widening the existing gap between this religious minority and the secularised host society. The objective of this study is to investigate what the Muslim community can contribute to the development of society, to look at how religious discourse can help the younger generations identify with success, and how the faith factor can be a success factor for economic integration.
Muslims and Discrimination
Muslims and Discrimination
(Muslims and Discrimination)
- Author(s):Tufyal Choudhury
- Language:English
- Subject(s):Politics and religion, Studies in violence and power, Ethnic Minorities Studies
- Page Range:77-106
- No. of Pages:30
- Summary/Abstract:The urgent need to tackle the discrimination faced by Muslims in Europe has emerged as a key concern of European policy-makers. Discrimination is considered a significant contributor to alienation and disaffection among Muslims, a barrier to integration and a risk factor for radicalisation. Developing effective and coherent policy interventions requires a clear understanding of the nature of the discrimination faced by Muslims as well as an assessment of the strength and limitations of existing policies. The first part of this paper examines the nature of the discrimination faced by Muslims in Europe. It sets out some of the research and statistical data that are available on performance by minority groups in relation to key socio-economic indicators. While this provides important information about the disadvantages experienced by minority groups that are predominately Muslim, the paucity of information on Muslims, as a group, limits our understanding of both the disadvantages and the discrimination Muslims encounter. In examining the data, the difficulty of identifying the role of ‘discrimination’ from data is explored. Furthermore, even when there is sufficiently robust data to allow statistical regression that can identify an ‘ethnic’, ‘religion’ or ‘migrant’ penalty, the nature of discrimination that Muslims are confronted with remains complex and varied. It is suggested that the main grounds for discrimination that Muslims face vary between different Muslim groups. For some, the first order of discrimination may be on the basis of nationality, refugee or immigration status. For others, colour and racial discrimination may be prevalent and for others it may be religious discrimination. Most importantly, attempting to identify a particular area of discrimination overlooks the potential for discrimination on intersectional and multiple grounds. Finally, even when it is possible to identify religious discrimination, the experience and impact of it can vary among Muslims. A second part of this paper explores the possibilities, potential and limitations within the current EU policies aimed at tackling discrimination. It begins therefore, by setting out the developments in EU antidiscrimination legislation and policy – with a focus on the EC Directive for tackling discrimination on the grounds of religion and belief in employment (the Framework Directive) – considering the relationship between equality and discrimination. It is argued that a fundamental constraint on the use of tools provided by the legal framework is the absence of any consensus on a vision of what equality for Muslims looks like. The paper then explores some of the limitations of the Framework Directive; these include the limited scope of the application of the directive, the potential for addressing multiple or intersectional discrimination and the continuation of an approach that relies on individuals making complaints.
Access to Media for European Muslims
Access to Media for European Muslims
(Access to Media for European Muslims)
- Author(s):Isabelle Rigoni
- Language:English
- Subject(s):Media studies, Politics and religion, Ethnic Minorities Studies
- Page Range:107-123
- No. of Pages:17
- Summary/Abstract:Despite its rank as the second-largest religion in several European countries, Islam is facing severe resistance at both state and societal level. Certain conservative political and media discourses associate Islam with violence and fanaticism. For most Muslims, however, their religion is associated with notions of justice and democracy. The conflict between these two conceptualisations of Islam has reinforced defensive attitudes on both sides. While Muslim stereotypes have increased since 9/11, so have the voices in favour of civil liberties for Muslims in Europe. As is argued here, ethnic media (i.e. Muslim media) are playing a major role on both sides of the debate. These questions are of common concern to many EU member states and associated states and European institutions. They are based on three assumptions. Firstly, new information and communication technology (ICT) has reshaped the media scene, which is now accessible to increasing numbers of people, including exchanges between European countries and third countries. Secondly, the transnational mobilisations are increasingly influenced by ICT, which makes it possible for individuals to travel – both virtually and in reality – between several countries. Thirdly, the representation of the minority or marginalised groups, particularly in the case of Muslims, has become one of the key questions of European sociopolitical debate, and at the same time can be seen as a test for European democracy. I would like to propose a historical reading of the representation of Muslims and Islam in the media. It is a question of understanding how media discourse evolved as it did and how and when Muslims are portrayed in the media. Several questions can be raised: How do media technologies influence conditions within both the Muslim community and the mainstream? What are the consequences of national and EU policies for Muslim citizens and their media regarding their social and political inclusion? How do European Muslims aggregate interests in a more effective and efficient way via their own media? Do Muslim media advocate social inclusion or pursue narrow interests?
The Headscarf Question: What is Really the Issue?
The Headscarf Question: What is Really the Issue?
(The Headscarf Question: What is Really the Issue?)
- Author(s):Valérie Amiraux
- Language:English
- Subject(s):Sociology of Culture, Inter-Ethnic Relations, Ethnic Minorities Studies
- Page Range:124-143
- No. of Pages:20
- Keywords:headscarf;
- Summary/Abstract:Dangerous, scary, intriguing, threatening, intimidating, oppressive, irritating, aggressive, traditional, conservative, reactionary … These are a few of the adjectives one hears in discussions of what is confusingly called in European contexts not only the headscarf, but also the veil, hijab, nikab, tchador, jilbab, burqa or khimar. All these terms designate a scarf that Muslim women wear when outside the home to cover their hair, shoulders and breasts and, in some cases, their entire body including face and hands. The headscarf has become a sensitive issue, giving rise to legal disputes and political controversies in several EU member states, notably France, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and the UK. Headscarves, and by definition the Muslim women wearing them, nowadays stand for “everything that is thought to be wrong with Islam”. In addition to being obliged to be bare-headed on ID documents as in France, women wearing the headscarf have also been excluded in courts, universities, work places, hospitals and city halls. While the terrain of exclusion is widening, the groups of people affected are also widening to include young girls (adolescents) as well as adults.
Islamophobia and its Consequences
Islamophobia and its Consequences
(Islamophobia and its Consequences)
- Author(s):Chris Allen
- Language:English
- Subject(s):Politics and religion, Ethnic Minorities Studies
- Page Range:144-167
- No. of Pages:24
- Summary/Abstract:“Islamophobia is the shorthand way of referring to dread or hatred of Islam – and, therefore, to fear or dislike of all or most Muslims”, wrote the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia in the Runnymede report a decade ago. Widely accepted as the definition of Islamophobia, and given the report’s impact, it might come as some surprise that only five years ago, the term and concept of Islamophobia had little discursive relevance or value beyond the UK. Today, the situation is completely c hanged. Nowadays, Islamophobia emerges from many bi-polar extremes: from those who denounce any criticism of Muslims or Islam whatsoever as Islamophobic, to those who actively and openly espouse a vitriolic hatred of Islam and Muslims founded upon various ideological justifications. Consequently, little clear thinking or expression rarely – if indeed ever – comes into the equation as regards its usage or understanding. From the high-profile murder of Theo van Gogh in the Netherlands and the ensuing backlash against Muslims, to complaints about irresponsible parking during Friday prayers, these disparate and myriad events are indiscriminately incorporated into the discourse of Islamophobia. Islamophobia in many ways therefore remains an undifferentiated and bland term, employed to satisfy or appease in numerous and to various degrees.
Muslim Institutions and Political Mobilisation
Muslim Institutions and Political Mobilisation
(Muslim Institutions and Political Mobilisation)
- Author(s):Sara Silvestri
- Language:English
- Subject(s):Politics and religion, Sociology of Politics
- Page Range:169-182
- No. of Pages:14
- Summary/Abstract:In Europe, and most of the Western world, Muslim presence in the public sphere is a recent phenomenon that characterised the last decade of the 20th century and has deeply marked the beginning of the 21st. This visible presence, which amounts to something between 15 and 20 million individuals, can best be analysed if dissected into a number of components. The first part of this chapter illustrates where, when and why organised Muslim voices and institutions have emerged in Europe, and which actors have been involved. The second part is more schematic and analytical, in that it seeks to identify from these dynamics the process through which Muslims become political actors and how they relate to other, often in competing political forces and priorities. It does so by observing the objectives and the variety of strategies that Muslims have adopted in order to articulate their concerns vis-à-vis different contexts and interlocutors. The conclusions offer an initial evaluation of the impact and of the consequences of Muslim mobilisation and institution-formation for European society and policy-making.
Official Recognition of Islam
Official Recognition of Islam
(Official Recognition of Islam)
- Author(s):Bernard Godard
- Language:English
- Subject(s):Politics and religion, Inter-Ethnic Relations
- Page Range:183-203
- No. of Pages:21
- Summary/Abstract:The particular history of relations between the state and religions, and the juridical arrangements governing the life of these religions over the centuries, constitute a third element determining the make-up of the institutional representation of Islam. Conceptions range from the very secular, as in France, to a view that accords a great deal of space to religious bodies for their participation in the life of society. The reinforcement of the process of secularisation, however, is what characterises recent trends in Europe the most, especially compared to the rest of the world. And no matter what legislative forms these relations between the state and religions take, this drive towards secularisation touches the countries with state religions such as Denmark, Greece or the UK as much as the ‘concordat’ countries, namely Spain and Italy. Those countries that had developed a clearly ‘culturalist’ vision, like the Netherlands, in particular through the policy ‘pillars’ of Catholic, Protestant and humanistic doctrines, now seem to be returning to a more distanced policy with regard to different faiths. One could even advance the view that the presence of Islam has necessitated this distance, and some people now consider that this new religion cannot be too closely associated with public life. Policies that favour the expression of the Muslim faith could appear to contradict the declared neutrality of the state. For example, the very active support of the state for the establishment of the French Muslim Council was vehemently attacked in France as being contrary to Republican principles. And finally, the concerns engendered by radicalisation, in particular terrorism, have certainly accelerated the processes of recognising official bodies representing the Muslim faith. The British example is indicative of this, with the government shifting in 2005 from a very neutral, distant position to a desire to almost manage these bodies. In order to illustrate these points, we will examine the different processes that have been tried out to provide Muslims with a representative structure in France, Germany, Belgium, Netherlands, Spain, Italy, UK, Austria, Greece and Bulgaria and, secondarily, the public policies that have aimed to develop training curricula for imams.
References and Further Reading
References and Further Reading
(References and Further Reading)
- Author(s):Author Not Specified
- Language:English
- Subject(s):Governance, Public Law, Politics and religion, Ethnic Minorities Studies
- Page Range:204-224
- No. of Pages:24
About the Authors
About the Authors
(About the Authors)
- Author(s):Author Not Specified
- Language:English
- Subject(s):Essay|Book Review |Scientific Life
- Page Range:225-227
- No. of Pages:3
